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FINANCING  THE 
WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 


FINANCING  THE 
WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

A  SURVEY  OF  THE  FACTS  BEARING  ON 
INCOME  AND  EXPENDITURES  IN  THE 
FAMILIES  OF  AMERICAN   WAGE-EARNERS 


BY 

SCOTT  NEARING,  Ph.  D. 

Author  of  "  Wages  in  the  United  States," 
"The  Super  Race,"  etc. 


NEW  YORK 

B.  W.  HUEBSCH 

191S 


Copyright,  1913, 
Bt  B.  W.  HUEBSCH 


PRINTED  IN  0.  S.  A> 


CONTENTS 

FAGB 

INTEODUCTION 6 

CHAPTER 

I.  The  Financing  of  a  Woekingman's  Family. 

I     The  Problem  of  Family  Finance 11 

II     The  Maximum  of  Wages 13 

III  The  Minimum  of  Wages 19 

IV  Overwork 20 

V  Sickness    and   Accidents 22 

VI     The  Invention  of  New  Machinery 26 

VII     The   Shut-down  of   Individual  Plants 27 

VIII     Industrial    Crises 28 

IX     Supplementary  Income   Sources 32 

X     The   Minimum   of   Subsistence 36 

XI     Tlie  Effects  of  Low  Standards  of  Living   ....  38 

XII     Underfeeding 39 

XIII     The    Workingman's    Dilemma 41 

II.  The  Standard  of  Living. 

I     The  Meaning  of  "Standard  of  Living" 44 

II     Standard  of  Living  Estimates 44 

III  The  Analysis  of  Individual  Family  Budgets   ...  45 

IV  The  Averaging  of   Income   and   Expenditure    ...  47 

V  "Goods"   as  a  Basis   for   Study 64 

VI     The  Elements  in  a  Standard  of  Living 65 

VII     The  Eequirements  of  Specific  Items  in  a  Standard  of 

Living         67 

VIII     The  Chapin  and  Federal  Studies 61 

IX     The  Minimum  Standard  of  Living 63 

X     The  Fair  or  Normal   Standard 70 

XI     The  Value  of  the  "Goods"  Standard 80 

III.  The  Cost  of  a  Standaed  of  Living. 

I     The   Problem    of    Costs 82 

II     The  Cost  of  the  Minimum  Standard 82 

III     The  Cost  of  a  Fair  Standard  of  Living     .....  89 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

IV.  Income  and  Standards  of  Living. 

I     Income  and  Family   Standards 98 

II     Sources  of  Family  Income 99 

III  The  Income  of  Adult  Males 101 

IV  Contributions    of    Women    and    Children    to    Family 

Income 108 

V  Percentage  of  Family  Income  Derived  from  Various 

Sources Ill 

VI    Incomes  and  Standards  in  Fall  River,  Massachusetts  116 
VII    The  Family  Standard 119 

V.  The  American  Wage-Earner  and  Living  Standards. 

I  The  Issue  Before  the  Wage-Earner 121 

II  The  Necessity  for  an  EflSciency   Standard  of  Living  122 

III  The  Determination  of  an  Efficiency  Standard  .      .      .124 

IV  The  Cost  of  a  Standard  of  Living 124 

V  The  Wages  of  Adult  Males 126 

VI  Family  Income  and  the  Standard  of  Living   .      .      .   128 

VII     The  Problem  of  the  Wage-Earner 129 

VIII    The  Need  for  Local  Investigation 130 

Appendix.  Individual  Family  Budgets. 

I    The  Value  of  Family  Budgets 133 

II    A  Minimum  New  York  City  Budget 133 

III  The  Budget  of  a  Typical  American  Family     .     .      .139 

IV  Mill   Town   Budgets 143 

V  Variations  in  Family  Incomes    .     ..    :.•.....  163 
VI  Making  Both  Ends  Meet  .     .    ...    ......  167 


INTBODUCTION 

The  statement  made  in  1911,  that,  in  the  indus- 
tries east  of  the  Eockies  and  north  of  the  Mason  and 
Dixon  line,  "Half  of  the  adult  males  are  earning  less 
than  $500  a  year;  that  three-quarters  of  them  are 
earning  less  than  $600  annually ;  that  nine-tenths  are 
receiving  less  than  $800  a  year ;  while  less  than  ten 
per  cent,  receive  more  than  that  figure"^  called 
forth  considerable  comment.  On  the  one  hand,  it 
was  met  with  surprise  and  occasionally  with  in- 
credulity and  ridicule.  On  the  other  hand,  it  evoked 
a  chorus  of,  *'I  told  you  so's,"  from  the  radical  re- 
viewers. This  latter  group,  in  particular,  generally 
linked  a  brief  quotation  from  Chapin  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Introduction,  with  the  conclusions 
stated  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  book.  This  com- 
parison between  wages  in  a  large  section  of  the 
United  States  and  Chapin 's  statement  that  "a  New 
York  family  consisting  of  a  man,  wife  and  three 
children  under  fourteen  could  maintain  a  normal 
standard,  at  least  so  far  as  the  physical  man  is  con- 
cerned, on  an  annual  income  of  $900,"  ^  was  unfor- 
tunate, if  not  absurd.  The  wage  figure  covered  a 
wide  area.    Chapin  referred  to  New  York  city  alone. 

1  Scott  Neabing,  Wages  in  the  United  States,  p.  213.    The  Mac- 
millan  Co.,  New  York,  1911. 

2  Ibid,  p.  iii. 


6  INTRODUCTION 

Though  this  comparison  was  unjustifiable,  it  em- 
phasized the  need  of  a  study  which  should  make  a 
similar  comparison  possible.  The  answer  to  the 
question,  ''What  are  wages?"  is,  after  all,  only  one 
step  to  the  more  fundamental  question,  "What  will 
these  wages  buy?" 

Consciously  or  unconsciously,  most  families  do 
some  rough  budget  making.  Among  well-to-do  fam- 
ilies, budgets  are  made  for  a  year.  Among  families 
with  less  income,  or  with  less  foresight,  they  are 
made  by  the  month,  or  even  by  the  week.  Available 
income  is  placed  against  necessary  or  desired  expen- 
ditures, and  the  expenditures  are  pared  down  until 
they  will  fit  the  income.  Families  which  make  no 
such  effort  to  compare  income  and  outgo,  are  usually 
described  as  "happy-go-lucky"  or  "shiftless." 
Even  though  the  budget  is  a  crude  one,  the  consen- 
sus of  opinion  demands  that  it  be  made. 

Economic  changes  seriously  affect  the  budget 
problem.  Consider  for  example  the  effect  on  family 
budgets  of  Che  movcmciit  iuto  large  towns  and  cities. 
The  family  moving  from  a  rural  to  an  urban  home 
must  completely  readjust  its  budgetry  arrange- 
ments. Eent,  which  was  a  negligible  item  in  the 
country  (perhaps  ten  per  cent,  of  the  income)  may 
jump  to  fifteen,  twenty,  or  even  thirty  per  cent,  in 
the  city.  Free  goods  disappear.  There  are  no  fish 
and  berries  in  the  summer,  no  squirrels,  rabbits, 
pheasants  or  deer  in  the  winter.  There  is  no  kitchen 
garden.  Chickens,  ducks,  pigs,  cows — all  were  left 
behind  in  the  country.    Each  want  is  supplied  at  a 


INTRODUCTION  7 

price.  The  family  facing  this  transformation  must 
reorganize  its  budget. 

Where  family  budgets  made  on  paper  and  sub- 
ject to  annual  or  monthly  scrutiny  and  revision  by 
the  members  of  the  family  group,  this  alteration  in 
budgetry  needs  would  make  no  material  difference, 
since  the  budget  could  easily  be  rewritten.  But 
family  budgets  are  not  so  made.  Tradition  says, 
*'We  pay  so  much  for  food,  so  much  for  clothes,  so 
much  for  coal,  and  each  week,  so  much  goes  in  the 
old  cup  for  the  rent."  The  sway  of  such  forces  is 
effective  for  years  in  preventing  any  adequate  reor- 
ganization of  the  family  budget. 

Tradition  holds  another  form  which  is  equally  dis- 
aslrous  to  the  making  of  an  adequate  budget.  Peo- 
ple take  it  for  granted  that  ''a  dollar  and  a  half  a 
day"  is  a  fair  wage.  Why  should  the  wage  be  fixed 
at  a  dollar  and  a  half?  Because  twenty  or  thirty 
years  ago  a  man  living  in  a  village  could  support 
his  family  very  decently  on  that  amount.  Is  a  dol- 
lar and  a  half  sufficient  to-day?  An  appeal  to  the 
family  budget  furnishes  the  only  answer.  The  im- 
migrant has  worked  in  Italy  for  sixty  cents  a  day. 
Will  a  dollar  and  a  half  not  provide  a  princely  liv- 
ing, and  allow  for  saving  at  the  same  time?  Write 
it  into  a  budget  and  see !  Tradition  fixes  the  wage, 
however,  without  even  considering  budgetry  needs. 

The  rapid,  far-reaching  economic  changes  of  the 
past  fifty  years  have  played  havoc  with  the  old  order. 
The  face  of  industrial  America  has  been  reshaped  in 
these  two  generations  and  the  men  who  are  engaged 


INTRODUCTION 

in  pursuits  other  than  agriculture  have  become  town 
dwellers.  This  alteration  in  economic  status  has 
involved  the  reestablishment  of  an  equilibrium  be- 
tween  income  and  expenditure,  without  which  stable 
family  life  is  impossible.  What  is  that  equilibrium? 
What  amount  of  money  wage  is  required  to  purchase 
the  housing,  food,  clothing,  fuel  and  other  items  of 
normal  family  consumption?  What  relation  at 
present  exists  between  income  and  expenditure? 

The  answers  to  such  queries  lead  directly  into  a 
study  of  standards  of  living.  Already  these  fields 
have  been  excellently  covered.  Streightoff  has  pre- 
pared an  especially  good  analysis  of  the  elements  in 
a  standard  of  living;  Chapin  and  the  Federal  inves- 
tigation of  1907-09  provide  first-hand  studies  of 
standards;  the  reports  of  the  Federal  and  State 
bureaus  of  Labor,  together  vith  a  number  of  other 
less  valuable  sources  furnish  an  excellent  ground- 
work. The  following  chapters  lay  one  tier  of  de- 
ductions in  a  superstructure  which  shall  determine 
the  economic  status  of  the  American  wage-earner. 

Let  no  one  imagine  that  the  conclusions  or  infer- 
ences here  presented  are  final.  They  will  be  revised 
and  reformulated  many  times  before  the  facts  are 
established.  The  time  is,  however,  ripe  for  a  state- 
ment of  the  ground  already  covered.  It  remains  for 
more  elaborate,  publicly  financed  investigations  to 
determine,  accurately,  the  present  status  of  the 
American  wage-earner's  family  budget. 


FINANCING  THE  WAGE- 
EARNER'S  FAMILY 

CHAPTER  I 

The  Financing  of  a  Workingman's  Family 

7.    The  Prohlem  of  Family  Finance. 

Nearly  every  family  in  the  United  States  is  striv- 
ing to  bring  about  a  satisfactory  adjustment  between 
income  and  wants,  because  nearly  every  family  has 
more  wants  than  its  income  will  supply.     The  well- 
to-do  family  is  forced  to  choose  between  diffSTSnt 
Kinds  of  luxuries.    A  family  may  want,  for  example, 
an  automobile,  a  riding  horse,  a  month  at  the  shore, 
and  a  sleeping  porch ;  the  income  is  sufficient  to  pro- 
vide  only  one   of  these  things,   and,   therefore,  a 
decision  must  be  made  between  them.    The  neces- 
saries of  life  are  taken  for  granted  by  such  a  family, 
but  the  problem  of  the  luxuries  is  always  difficult  of 
solution.     The  man  who  is  supp.Oxting  a  family  on 
$25  awee^  however,  is  concerned  mainly  with  the 
necessaries  of  living.     The  first  family  is  called  upon«^  ^ 
to  choose  the  way  in  which  it  will  spend  its  surplus ;  ,^jy^ 
the  second  family  strains  every  nerve  to  prevent  a  j*^ 
deficit.    It  is  with  families  of  the  second  class  that  ^A- 
this  study  deals.  ^^  ''^<^^«:^W^^^ 


12     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

^  A  standard  of  living  is  a  very  abstract  and  gen- 
eral concept,  covering  all  of  the  elements  of  income 
and  expenditure  for  a  large  class  of  persons,  yet 
beneath  every  workingman's  bed  and  beside  his 
workbench  lurks  a  phantom — ^the  fear  of  misery, 
want,  hardship,  poverty,  and  starvation.  At  the  mo- 
ment when  he  assumes  family  responsibilities,  that 
phantom  takes  shape,  never  to  vanish  until  elevation 
to  a  higher  income  sphere,  or  death  comes  to  his 
relief.  The  individual  workingman,  in  his  own 
home,  and  at  his  own  work  must  finance  his  family 
— must  provide  for  them  the  wherewithal  to  pur- 
chase the  necessaries,  and  if  possible,  a  few  of  the 
comforts  of  life ;  must  set  aside  enough  for  the  emer- 
gencies, which  in  the  form  of  birth  or  death,  sick- 
ness, accident  or  unemployment  may  confront  him 
at  any  time;  must  provide  for  them  against  all  of 
the  uncertainties  and  vicissitudes  of  life;  must,  to 
the  best  of  his  ability,  erect  around  them  a  bulwark 
of  income  which  the  phantom  cannot  scale.  This 
workingman — this  individual  member  of  the  human 
race — ^must  battle  successfully  with  hardship  and 
misfortune  or  else  he  must  witness  the  sufferings  of 
those  dearest  to  him. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  impossible  in  a  study  of  large 
groups  of  facts  to  maintain  an  individual,  human 
viewpoint,  nevertheless,  it  behooves  the  student  to 
remember  that  behind  his  statistics  and  diagrams, 
there  are  individual  families,  containing  individual 
men  and  women,  who  are  struggling  hourly  to  place 
or  to  keep  their  finances  on  a  solvent  basis. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      13 

11.    The  Maximum  of  Wages. 

Two  stubbornly  persistent  facts  confront  the 
American  workingman  who  is  financing  a  family : 

1.  The  maximum  amount  of  income  which  he,  as  a 

workingman,  may  earn  is  definitely  limited. 

2.  The  minimum  amount  of  expenditure  necessary 

for  the  maintenance  of  his  existence  is  rigidly 
established. 

Although  the  propositions  sound  obvious,  the 
grave  issues  involved  in  these  two  simple  statements 
of  the  relations  between  income  and  expenditure  are 
not  always  clearly  perceived. 

The  maximum  amount  of  income  which  the  work- 
ingman may  earn  is  limited.  To  be  sure,  there  is 
always  a  possibility  of  the  workingman  rising  out 
of  the  ranks  of  the  workers  and  becoming  a  manager 
or  a  capitalist.  The  existence  of  this  chance  to  rise 
has  never  been  questioned,  though  its  mathematical 
boundaries  are  not  always  understood.  Consider, 
for  example,  one  of  the  greatest  single  industries  in 
the  United  States,  the  Eailroad  Industry,^  employ- 
ing nearly  a  million  and  three-quarters  of  men.^ 
"What  are  the  possibilities  for  advancement  in  this 
industry  as  shown  by  the  statistics  of  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission? 

There  were,  in  1910,  5,476  general  oflScers  directing 
the  activities  of  the  million  and  three-quarters  em- 

1  Statistics  of  Railways  in  the  United  States.  The  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission,  Washington,   1910. 

2  In  1910  the  number  was  1,699,420. 


14     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EAENER'S  FAMILY 

ployes.  Therefore,  in^the  business  life  of  the  gen- 
eral  officer  and  the  business  life  of  the  employe,  each 
employe  should  have  one  chance  in  three  hundred 
oT15ec6ming  a  general  officer  at  some  time  during 
his  life,  provided  that  the  employes  live  as  long  as 
the  general  officers,  and  provided  further  that  all 
the  general  officers  are  drawn  from  the  ranks  of  the 
employes.  Neither  of  these  assumptions,  however, 
is  correct,  because,  in  the  first  place,  insurance  tables 
indicate  that  the  life  of  the  general  officer  is  some- 
what longer  than  the  life  of  the  average  working- 
man.^  In  the  second  place,  the  general  officers  are 
not  always  drawn  from  the  ranks.  Leaving  these 
two  considerations  out  of  account,  however,  it  is  ap- 
parent that  the  mathematical  probability  that  the 
average  railroad  employe  will  become  a  general 
officer  is  about  one-third  of  one  per  cent. 

Consider  another  phase  of  the  situation.  Suppose 
that  you  are  a  railroad  trainman.  Mathematically, 
you  have  one  chance  in  three  hundred  of  becoming  a 
general  officer  at  some  time  during  your  life.  On  the 
other  hand,  you  have  one  chance  in  twenty  of  being 
injured,  and  one  chance  in  one  hundred  and  twenty 
of  being  killed  during  each  year  that  you  are  at  work. 

Supposing  that  your  total  term  of  service  is 
twenty  years,  the  chances  are  one  to  one  that  during 
that  time  you  will  be  injured,  and  one  to  six  that 

8  At  every  age  the  death-rate  for  the  industrial  workers  exceeds 
that  for  the  middle  class  man.  At  the  later  ages,  the  rate  is  double. 
See  Abb.  Landis,  Friendly  Societies  and  Fraternal  Orders,  p.  149, 
1906;  J.  R.  Hegeman,  Industrial  Insurance  in  "Insurance,"  edited  by 
W.  A.  Fricke,  p.  240,  1898. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      15 

during  that  time  you  will  be  killed ;  so  that  the  chance 
of  your  being  injured  is  three  hundred  times  as 
great,  and  of  your  being  killed  is  fifty  times  as  great 
as  your  chance  of  becoming  a  general  officer  in  the 
company  which  is  employing  you. 

A  similar  condition  exists  in  the  manufacturing 
industries^  The  Census  Bureau  reports  that  in  1909 
there  were  7,678,578  persons  engaged  in  manufactur- 
ing in  the  United  States.  Six  in  each  hundred  of 
these  persons  were  "proprietors  and  officials";  8 
in  each  hundred  were  clerks,  and  86  were  wage-earn- 
ers. In  some  industries,  the  percentage  of  wage- 
earners  falls  as  low  as  56  per  cent.  In  others,  it 
rises  to  98  per  cent.  In  general,  those  industries 
which  may  be  run  with  small  capital  and  on  a  small 
scale  show  a  smaller  percentage  of  wage-earners 
than  the  great  socialized  industries  in  which  a  large 
capital  must  be  invested,  and  in  which  expensive 
machinery  is  depended  upon  for  a  great  portion  of 
the  work.^ 

Eeporting  on  the  employment  of  172,706  persons 
in  the  iron  and  steel  industry,  the  United  States 
Commission  of  Labor  writes^ — ^**  Taking  the  em- 
ployes in  all  occupations  in  the  industry,  nearly  60 
per  cent,  are  foreign-born,  and  nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  foreign-born  are  of  the  Slavic  races.  Large  as 
is  the  proportion  that  unskilled  labor  forms  of  the 

4  Manufacturers  in  the  TJ.  8.  Advance  Bulletin  of  Statistics  for 
1909,  p.  15,  Washington,  1910. 

6  Summary  of  the  Wages  and  Hour  of  Lahor  in  the  Iron  and  Steel 
Industry,  p.  10.  Senate  Doc.  301,  62nd  Congress,  2nd  Session,  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington,  1912,  p.  10. 


16     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

total  labor  force  in  the  iron  and  sted  industry,  steel 
experts  have  noted  the  fact  that  (he  tendency  of 
recent  years  has  been  steadily  toward  the  reduction 
of  the  number  of  highly  skilled  men  employed  and 
the  establishment  of  the  general  wage  on  the  basis 
of  common  or  unskilled  laborj  Nor  is  this  tendency  _ 
likely  to  diminish,  since  each  year  sees  a  wider  use 
of  mechanical  appliances  which  unskilled  labor  can 
easily  be  trained  to  handle."  The  situation  in 
manufacturing  differs  little  from  that  in  railroading. 
In  both  cases,  the  organization  of  industry  is  such 
that  there  are  a  few  managers  and  many  wage-earn- 
ers— a  proportion  which  must  be  maintained  so  long 
as  the  present  system  of  specialized  industry  per- 
sists. 

^In  short,  the  tendency  of  modern  industry  is  to- 
ward a  form  of  organization  which  will  require  the 
wage-worker  to  remain  a  wage-worker.  \  The  rail- 
road does  not  expect  a  brakeman  to  become  president 
or  general  manager,  but  instead,  to  become  a  con- 
ductor. In  the  same  way,  section  hands  make 
section  foremen,  and  locomotive  firemen  make  loco- 
motive engineers.  The  railroad  manager  is  not 
looking  for  an  engineer  who  will  make  a  general 
superintendent,  but  for  an  engineer  who  will  be  and 
will  remain  a  good  engineer. 

The  chance  to  rise  cannot  affect  the  problem  of 
wage-earners'  family  finance,  first  because  it  is  so 
mathematically  inconsiderable  as  to  reduce  it  to  the 
absurd,  and  second  because  the  workingman  who 
rises  ceases  to  be  a  workingman,  and  hence  passes 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN 'S  FAMILY      17 

out  of  the  large  group  of  always-to-be  workingmen 
who  form  the  subject  of  this  discussion. 

Modern  industry  is  so  organized  that  the  locomo- 
tive engineer,  bricklayer,  carpet  weaver,  railroadl 
carpenter,  blacksmith,  press  feeder,  machinist  or 
cigar  roller  at  thirty  can  determine  pretty  definitely, 
first  that  he  will  remain  a  wage-earner  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  and  second  what  his  wages  for 
the  rest  of  his  working  life  will  be.  The  fact  that 
he  is  a  wage-earner  carries  with  it  the  necessary  as- 
sumption that  the  maximum  amount  which  he  may; 
earn  is  definitely  fixed  by — 

1.  The  amount  which  he  produces; 

2.  Custom; 

3.  Cost  of  replacement; 

4.  Trade  unions. 

No  industry  could  survive  which  paid  more  in 
wages  than  its  workers  created  in  product.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  no  force  impelling  the  industry 
to  pay  to  the  workingman  all  that  he  produces.  On 
the  contrary,  custom  limits  his  income  drastically. 
In  a  given  district,  farmers  pay  $30  a  month  for 
labor,  irrespective  of  the  amount  which  this  labor 
produces,  and  so  long  as  they  can  secure  labor  for 
$30  they  will  never  pay  $35.  In  other  words,  they 
will  pay  as  much  wages  as  they  are  compelled  to  pay 
in  order  to  get  help,  and  excepting  that  they 
cannot  pay  a  man  more  than  he  produces,  the  amount 
of  his  product  plays  no  part  in  fixing  his  wages. 
Even  in  piece  work,  the  piece  rate  is  fixed  at  a  point 


18     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

where  the  worker  can  earn  a  "fair,'*  that  is,  a  cus- 
tomary wage.  If  the  worker  becomes  so  expert  that 
he  can  produce  a  greater  number  of  pieces,  the  piece 
rate  is  cut  to  a  point  which  will  put  him  back  to  a 
''customary"  wage.^  Not  the  amount  which  a  la- 
borer produces,  but  the  cost  of  replacing  him  by  an 
equally  efficient  laborer,  determines  his  wage.  This 
principle  has  been  rigorously  applied  in  the  replace- 
ment of  native-bom  by  foreign-born  and  of  higher 
standard  by  lower  standard  groups  of  immigrants. 
In  the  sweated  trades,  in  the  slaughtering  industry 
and  the  steel  industry,  the  man  or  woman  who  will 
work  the  cheapest  gets  the  job,  irrespective  of  na- 
tionality or  sex.*^  Thus,  while  the  total  amount  of 
product  fixes  an  unalterable  maximum  to  wages, 
custom  and  the  cost  of  getting  someone  else  to  do 
the  work  fix  the  actual  wage  scale. 

Trade  unions,  in  spite  of  their  efforts  to  ward  off 
the  danger,  by  fixing  a  minimum  wage,  virtually  fix 
a  maximum  as  well.  Theoretically,  they  do  not  level 
down  the  able  man  to  the  standard  of  his  fellows,  but 
practically  wage  scales  have  usually  worked  out  in 
that  way. 

Therefore,  by  consulting  the  wage  statistics  of  his 

6  J.  A.  Fitch,  Steel  Workers,  Charities  Publication  Committee, 
New  York,  1910.  E.  B.  Butler,  Woman  and  the  Trades,  Charities 
Publication  Committee,  New  York,  1910.  Chables  Stelzle,  Letters 
from  a  Workingman,  Revell,  Ne^Y  York,  1908. 

7  Peter  Roberts,  The  New  Pittsburgers,  Vol.  II,  p.  533,  Charities 
and  the  Commons,  New  York,  Jan.  2,  1909.  C.  D.  Wright,  Influence 
of  Trade  Unions  on  Immigrants,  pp.  1-8,  Bulletin  56,  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Labor,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  1905.  Report  of  the 
Industrial  Commission,  General  Index,  Vol.  19,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  1902. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      19 

industry  and  his  locality,  the  miner,  at  thirty,  can 
determine  that  during  the  coming  twenty  years  Els^ 
earnings  w^]_j)TroKnli1y  not  exceed  $600  a  year;  the_^ 
cotton  weaver,  that  his  earnings  will  probably  not, 
exceed  $700  annually ;  the  railroad  conductor,  that 
he  will  not  earn  more  than  $125  a  month.  In  each 
trade,  the  maximum  is  fixed,  and  though  wages  may 
be  gradually  rising,  the  increase  is  not  sufficient, 
over  a  period  of  twenty  years  to  warrant  a  man  in 
expecting  any  great  change  in  the  status  of  his  in- 
come. 

111.    The  Minimum  of  Wages. 

While  the  maximum  amount  which  a  workingman 
may  earn  is  thus  definitely  fixed,  there  is  no  cor- 
responding minimum  below  which  his  wages  may 
not  fall.  The  forces  which  determine  the  most  that 
a  man  may  earn  are  balanced  by  an  equally  potent 
group  of  forces  acting  continually,  which  may  deter- 
mine, either  that  he  shall  earn  less  than  at  present, 
or  else  that  he  shall  earn  nothing  at  all.  "While  the 
miaximum  of  income  is  certain,  there  is  no  sure  min- 
imum of  income  except  zero. 

There  are  five  factors,  continually  operating  in 
industrial  society,  any  one  of  which  Tnay  rpd^:|Cft  or 
entij;g]j£.  oliminato  iuoome.    These  factors  are: 

1.  Overwork; 

2.  Sickness  and  accidents; 

3.  Labor-saving  inventions ; 

4.  Shut-downs  of  industrial  plants; 

5.  Industrial  crises. 


20     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

IV.    Overwork. 

Under  the  strain  incident  to  overwork,  a  man  may 
break  down  at  forty  and  be  discharged  because  he 
is  physically  or  nervously  unable  to  continue  with 
his  duties.  Modern  industry  is  run  at  a  terrific 
speed  which  leads  inevitably  to  a  shortened  working 
life,  or  a  decreasing  efficiency.  This  speeding  proc- 
ess in  one  of  the  greatest  of  American  industries — 
the  steel  industry — is  thus  described  by  Fitch: 

''The  steel  mills  to-day  offer  an  excellent  demon- 
stration of  the  theory  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 
The  steel  workers  are  men  of  strong,  steady  consti- 
tutions; they  must  be,  for  when  they  begin  to  fail 
they  cease  to  be  steel  workers.  Often  I  was  told 
by  workmen  of  forty  and  forty-five  that  they  had 
been  at  their  best  at  thirty  years  of  age,  and  that 
at  thirty-five  they  had  begun  to  feel  a  perceptible 
decline  in  strength.^ 

''We  have  noted  the  speeding-up  system  in  all 
its  ramifications;  the  'pushers,'  who  drive  the  com- 
mon laborers ;  the  gang  system  at  the  furnaces  and 
at  the  rolls,  which,  combined  with  the  tonnage  sys- 
tem of  payment,  makes  the  steel  blooms  and  billets 
do  their  own  driving;  the  cash  rewards  given  to  the 
foremen  .and  superintendents  in  the  Corporation 
mills  for  helping  to  keep  up  the  tension ;  and,  finally, 
the  judicious  cuts  from  time  to  time  in  the  rate  of 
pay  per  ton,  which  make  the  men  put  forth  the  last 

8  John  A.  Fitch,  The  Steel  Workers,  pp.  183-184,  Charities  Publi- 
cation Committee,  New  York,  1911. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      21 

ounce  of  energy  to  prevent  a  wage  loss.  All  these, 
together  with  the  heat  and  the  danger  of  accident, 
result  in  overstrain  and  exhaustion,  both  mental  and 
physical. "  ^ 

Such  a  system  clearly  places  a  premium  on  youth 
and  vigor  and  a  serious  handicap  on  age.  This 
fact  the  companies  are  not  slow  to  recognize.  They 
do  not  want  old  men  on  their  pay-rolls — and  they 
say  so,  clearly  and  emphatically.  A  few  years  ago 
a  general  order  was  reported  to  have  been  sent 
from  headquarters  to  all  mills  of  the  Carnegie  Steel 
Company  directing  the  superintendents  to  accept  no 
more  men  over  forty  years  of  age  in  any  depart- 
ment, and  in  some  departments  to  hire  only  men 
of  thirty-five  and  under.  In  the  rules  for  its  pen- 
sion department  adopted  January  1,  1902,  the 
American  Steel  and  Wire  Company  has  this  pro- 
vision: **No  inexperienced  person  over  thirty-five 
years  of  age  and  no  experienced  person  over  forty- 
five  years  of  age  shall  hereafter  be  taken  into  the 
employ  of  the  company. ' '  ^^ 

Men  are  expected  to  go  to  pieces  before  reaching 
normal  old  age.  The  pace  is  set  high,  and  those 
who  cannot  keep  it,  must  drop  out  or  take  less 
lucrative  positions.  The  conditions  in  the  steel  in- 
dustry may  sound  exceptionally  bad,  yet  recent 
studies  have  revealed,  everywhere,  an  astonishing 
amount  of  overwork  and  fatigue. 

There  seems  to  be  little  question  that  there  is  an 
intimate  connection  between  overwork  and  physical 

» Ibid.,  p.  201.  10  Ibid.,  p.  84. 


22     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

decadence.  Fisher  writes:  **The  relatively  slight 
impairment  of  efficiency  due  to  overfatigue  leads  to 
more  serious  impairment.  ...  A  typical  succession 
of  events  is  first  fatigue,  then  colds,  then  tubercu- 
losis, then  death."  ^^  Yet,  "the  economic  waste 
from  undue  fatigue  is  probably  much  greater  than 
the  waste  from  serious  illness."  *'The  number  that 
suffer  partial  disability  through  undue  fatigue  cer- 
tainly constitute  the  great  majority  of  the  popula- 
tion." 12 

Small  wonder,  in  view  of  these  facts  that  Dr. 
Devine  describes  overwork  and  its  consequent  fa- 
tigue as  **the  one  great  overshadowing  injury  of 
the  present  day,"^^  an  injury  from  which  every 
workman  in  every  speeded-up  industry  necessarily 
suffers — an  injury  which  decreases  his  individual 
chance  of  keeping  up  his  income  to  a  level  of  decent 
living. 

V.    Sickness  and  Accidents. 

Sickness  and  accidents  are  constant  factors  which 
deprive  the  workingman  of  his  wages.  We  have  no 
means  of  knowing  how  prevalent  sickness  is.  Ir- 
ving Fisher  attempts  an  estimate  based  on  the  vital 
statistics  of  England,  that,  **  There  are  probably  at 
all  times  about  3,000,000  persons  seriously  ill,"  in 
the  United  States.    ''This  means   an  average  of 

iilBViNG  FiSHEB,  National  Ejficiency,  p.  47,  Government  Printing 
OflBce,  Washington,  1909. 

12  Idem. 

isEdwabd  T.  Devine,  Social  Forces,  p.  82,  Charities  Publication 
Committee,  New  York,  1910. 


FINANCING  A  WOEKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      23 

thirteen  days  per  annum  for  each  inhabitant. ' '  ^* 
The  estimate  covers  only  serious  illness.  In  judg- 
ing the  sum  total  of  sickness,  it  is,  therefore,  neces- 
sary to  add  the  sickness  from  minor  ailments,  which 
probably  cause  the  average  ''well  man"  to  lose  from 
three  to  five  days  each  year.^^ 

An  intensive  study  of  the  effect  of  disease  on  wage- 
earning  capacity  was  made  in  connection  with  The 
Pittsburgh  Survey/.  The  results  of  typhoid  fever 
in  338  families  are  truly  astonishing.  Of  the  2,045 
individuals  in  these  families,  248  or  22  per  cent, 
had  typhoid  fever  within  the  year.  There  were  26 
deaths  and  422  recoveries.  Of  the  448  patients,  187 
were  wage-earners,  who  lost  an  aggregate  of  1901 
weeks  (36.6  years)  in  working  time,  and  $23,573.15 
in  wages.  Other  wage-earners  lost  322  weeks'  work 
and  $3,326.50  in  wages,  while  caring  for  patients. 
In  addition  there  were  heavy  expenses  for  medi- 
cines, doctors,  funerals  and  the  like.  If  these  448 
cases  are  a  fair  sample  of  typhoid  cases,  the  5,421 
cases  which  occurred  in  Pittsburgh  during  1907,  cost 
the  people  of  that  city  $693,000  in  expenses  and  loss 
of  wages  alone. ^® 

Such  fragmentary  evidence  indicates  the  nature  of 
the  problem  which  the  workingman  faces  in  the  form 
of_ji(ilj:ness.  No  less  acute  is  the  problera  confront- 
ing him  in  the  form  of  industrial  accidents.  It  is 
probable  that  the  number  of  industrial  accidents 

14  National  Vitality,  p.  34,  op.  cit. 

15  Ibid.,  p.  39, 

16  Feank  E.  Wing,  Thirty-five  years  of  Typhoid,  p.  928,  Charities 
and  the  Comiaons,  Feb.  6,  1909. 


24    FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

(deaths  and  injuries)  which  occur  annually  in  the 
United  States  is  about  half  a  million.^"^  Frederick 
L.  Hoffman  feels  himself  justified  in  the  statement 
that  ''the  actual  number  of  fatal  accidents  among 
occupied  males  in  1908,  is  probably  somewhere  be- 
tween 30,000  and  35,000."  ^^  If  the  same  relation 
between  the  numbers  of  fatal  and  non-fatal  acci- 
dents exists  in  the  United  States  as  that  found  in 
New  York  State,  in  England  and  in  Germany  (i.  e. 
5  per  cent,  fatal  and  95  per  cent,  non-fatal)  then  the 
number  of  non-fatal  accidents  in  the  United  States 
must  be  approximately  600,000  each  year.^® 

These  accidents  happen  to  men  in  the  prime  of 
life,  hence,  by  inference,  to  the  men  who  are  sup- 
porting young  families.  The  deaths  from  126,567 
accidents  in  the  United  States  1900  to  1906,  were 
distributed,  according  to  age,  as  follows :  2° 

Percentage  of 
Age  of  death.  *  total  accidents. 

15  to  24  years    19 

25  to  35  years    23 

35  to  44  years    21 

45  to  54  years    15 

55  to  64  years    10 

65  years  and  over 12 

100% 

"While  these  statistics  refer  to  all  accidents,  the 
data  secured  by  Miss  Eastman  for  industrial  acci- 

itAbthub  B.  Reeve,  The  Death  Roll  of  Industry,  vol.  17,  p.  795, 
Charities  and  the  Commons,  1907. 

18  Bulletin  78,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  p.  418,  Government  Print- 
ing Office,  Washington,  1908. 

19  Ibid.,  pp.  420-1. 

20  Ibid.,  p.  422. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      25 

dents  in  Pittsburgh  shows  that  there,  at  least,  the 
age  at  which  deaths  from  accidents  occur  is  lower 
than  in  the  United  States  at  large.  During  the 
year  of  her  investigation,  526  wage-earners  were 
killed  in  Allegheny  County.  The  age  at  death  of 
this  group  was :  ^^ 

Age.  Per  cent. 

Under  21 16 

21  to  30   42 

31  to  40    26 

40  and  over 16 

100% 

Thus  for  all  accidental  deaths  in  the  country  at 
large,  sixty-three  in  each  hundred  occurred  to  per- 
sons under  45,  while  in  the  industries  of  Pittsburgh 
eighty-four  in  each  hundred  of  wage-earners  died  at 
40  or  under — in  the  prime  of  life. 

That  these  accidents  make  serious  inroads  on 
family  income  is  indicated  by  an  analysis  of  the 
economic  responsibilities  which  were  being  carried 
by  the  467  persons  killed  in  Allegheny  County  from 
July,  1906,  to  July,  1907,  for  whom  reliable  data 
could  be  secured.    Of  this  group  there  were: 

1,  Married — 258. 

A.  With  one  or  more  children  under  16 206 

B.  Without  children  under   16    49 

C.  Age  of  children  unknown  3 

2,  Single— 209. 

A.  Sole  support  of  family   19 

B.  Chief  support  of  family   20 

C.  Regular  contributors   90 

D.  Non-contributors     80 

21  Crystal  Eastman,  A  Year's  WorTc  Accidents  and  their  Cost,  p. 
1146,  Charities  and  the  Commons,  March  6,  1909. 


26     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

THus  in  297  or  63  per  cent,  of  the  families,  the  per- 
son killed  was  the  sole,  or  chief  contributor  to  family 
income.^^ 

Both  sickness  and  accidents  are  prevalent,  and 
both,  by  destroying  life,  by  causing  unemployment 
and  by  temporarily  or  permanently  impairing  effi- 
ciency, lower  the  earning  power  of  the  worker. 

VI.    The  Invention  of  New  Machinery. 

The  invention  of  new  machinery  is  a  constant 
menace  to  regularity  of  employment.  While  the 
percentage  of  the  total  working  force,  affected  by 
such  labor  replacements,  is  small  at  any  one  time, 
the  individual  laborers  in  each  instance  are  none 
the  less  completely  deprived  for  the  time  being  of 
the  means  of  livelihood.  If  the  changes  occur  sud- 
denly, as  in  the  case  of  the  industrial  revolution  and 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  factory  system  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  early  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth centuries,  the  suffering  and  misery  entailed 
are  terrific.^^  If  the  changes  occur  more  slowly,  as 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  the  outcome  is  less 
dramatic,  but  in  individual  cases,  none  the  less 
tragic.^^ 

22  Crystal  Eastmatt,  Work  Accidents  and  the  Law,  pp.  119-20, 
Charities  Publication  Committee,  New  York,  1910. 

23  H.  deB  Gibbi>'S,  Industry  in  England,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
New  York,  1907. 

2*  D.  A.  Wells,  Recent  Economic  Changes,  Appleton,  New  York, 
1889.  J.  G.  Brooks,  The  Social  Unrest,  Macmillan,  New  York,  1903. 
"Machinery"  in  the  Report  of  the  Industrial  Commission,  vols.  7,  8, 
14  and  15,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  1902. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      27 


VII.    The  Shut-down  of  Individual  Plants. 

Loss  of  work  is  frequently  entailed  by  the  shut- 
down of  individual  industries  or  plants.  Businesses 
are  continually  failing,  or  closing  temporarily  for 
repairs.  Strikes  occur  at  irregular  intervals.  In 
many  industries  the  season  during  which  the  de- 
mand for  labor  is  active,  is  comparatively  short. 
One  or  all  of  these  factors  may  operate  to  deprive 
the  workingman  temporarily  of  his  wages.  A  very 
fair  summary  of  the  problem  is  presented  by  the 
New  York  Labor  Department.^^  The  causes  of  idle- 
ness at  the  end  of  March,  as  reported  by  the  trade 
unions,  were  as  follows: 

Cause.  1904.  1907.  1910. 

Lack  of  work  .  •. 33.3  67.3  66.8 

Lack  of  stock 1.2  2.4  4.2 

Weather  35.2  20.0  11.7 

Labor  disputes    24.7  5.2  10.9 

Disability    3.8  4.6  6.1 

Other  reasons  ; 1.5  0.4  0.1 

Reason  not  .stated  0.3  0.1  0.2 

100.00  100.0  100.0 

In  1904,  strikes  were  responsible  for  a  quarter  of  the 
unemployment ;  in  1907  and  1910,  the  great  mass  of 
unemployment,  about  two-thirds,  was  due  to  lack  of 
work;  while,  as  would  be  expected,  the  weather  is 
constantly  responsible  for  a  considerable  amount 
of  unemployment,  practically  all  of  which  is  due  to 
causes  beyond  the  control  of  the  individual  laborer. 

28  Bulletin  No.  44,  New  York  State  Department  of  Labor,  p.  171, 
June,  1910. 


28     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

Even  more  striking  are  the  figures  showing  sea- 
sonal variation  in  unemployment.  At  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  the  possibilities  of  employment  are 
much  greater  than  at  other  seasons.  Some  trades, 
like  building  and  construction  work,  cannot  be  suc- 
cessfully carried  forward  in  the  winter  months,  and 
are,  therefore,  distinctly  seasonal.  Other  trades, 
while  less  noticeably  seasonal,  are  affected  by  the 
seasons. 

The  extent  to  which  shut-downs  occur  during  a 
normally  prosperous  year  is  indicated  by  the  Census 
Bureau  in  its  report  on  manufactures  for  1905.  Of 
the  216,262  establishments  reporting  to  this  Bureau 
in  1905  26 

Days  in  Operation. 

11,494   (   5.3%)    90orles3 

.      22,091    (10.2%)     91  to  180 

27,666  i  12.a?'<4s 181  to  270 

67,49^   (31.2%1     271  to  300 

87,520   (40.5%|    301  to  366 

As  there  are\307  working  days  in  the  year,  it  ap- 
pears that  in  a  year  of  considerable  prosperity 
(1904)  three-fiftBe  of  all  of  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries in  the  United  States  worked  less  than  a  full 
year  (300  days),  -m^le  a  third  of  all  them  worked 
less  than  270  days. 

VIII.    Industrial  Crises. 

During  the  nineteenth  century,  the  industrial 
world  has  been  periodically  upset  by  a  series  of  in- 
dustrial depressions  which  have  caused  widespread 

26  Census  of  Manufacturers,  Part  I,  pp.  542-3,  1905. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      29 

unemployment.  During  these  depressions,  even  the 
ablest  workingmen  are  unable  to  secure  employment 
of  any  kind.  If  the  depression  is  prolonged  and 
widespread,  conditions  of  livelihood  may  remain  un- 
certain during  months  or  even  years.  An  excellent 
idea  of  the  effect  of  industrial  depressions  upon 
wage-earners  may  be  gained  from  an  examination 
of  the  employment  in  mines.  The  figures  for  min- 
ing show  only  the  number  of  days  which  the  mines 
worked,  making,  therefore,  no  allowance  for  the  un- 
employment due  to  sickness  and  accidents  to  the 
individual.^'^ 

Total  number  of  days  during  which  the  coal  mines  were  idle, 
1890-1910. 

United  States  Pennsylvania 

Bituminous.  Anthracite. 

Year.  Days  idle.  Days  idle. 

1890    80    106 

1891    83    103 

1892    87    108 

1893  102  109 

1894  135  116 

1895  112  110 

1896  114  132 

1897  110  156 

1898  56  154 

1899  72  133 

1900  72  140 

1901  81  110 

1902  76  190 

1903  81  100 

1904    104    106 

1905    95    91 

1906    93    Ill 

1907    72    86 

1908    113    ; 106 

1909    89    75 

1910    95    60 

27  Scott   Neaeing,    The  Extent   of   Unemployment   in    the    United 
States,  p.  538,  American  Statistical  Association,  Boston,  Mass.,  1909. 


30     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FA]\IILY 

Figures  collected  by  the  Kew  York  Bureau  of 
Labor  for  the  building  trades  and  for  the  unionized 
trades  of  New  York  State,  show  a  similar  condition 
of  affairs.^^ 

Percentage  of  memlers  of  lalor  unions  idle  at  the  end  of  September. 

Per  cent. 
Year.  idle. 

1897  13.8 

1898  13.1 

1899  4.7 

1900  13.3 

1901  6.9 

1902  5.7 

1903  9.0 

1904  9.7 

1905  4.9 

1906  6.7 

1907  10.5 

1908  22.5 

1909  10.3 

An  analysis  of  these  two  series  of  figures  shows 
that  unemployment  at  certain  periods  is  very  much 
more  severe  than  at  others.  These  fluctuations  havfe 
occurred  and  still  do  occur  with  alarming  regular- 
ity.29 

Industry  offers  the  workingman  an  opportunity 
to  earn  a  living,  subject  to  the  caprice  of  overwork, 
sickness,  accidents,  new  machinery,  individual  shut- 
downs and  general  suspensions  of  industrial  activ- 
ity— a  hierarchy  of  forces  which  overshadow  every 
movement  of  his  life,  threatening  continually  to  hurl 
against  him  the  phantom  of  misery. 

28  Bulletin  43,  Xew  York  State  Department  of  Labor,  p.  12,  March, 
1910. 

2»W.  H.  Be\"EBIDGe,  Unemployment,  Ch.  4,  Longmans,  Green,  & 
Co.,  London,  1909.  Sidney  J.  Chapman,  Work  and  Wages,  p.  317, 
Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.,  London,  1908. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGIklAN 'S  FAMILY      31 

Any  one,  or  any  combination  of  these  five 
forces,  may,  at  any  time,  diminisli,  temporarily  or 
permanently,  the  income-earning  capacity  of  the 
worker.  All  of  them  are  beyond  his  individual  con- 
trol, yet  they  strike,  with  merciless  certainty,  the 
source  of  livelihood  of  the  family  in  which  they  oc- 
cur. 

Overwork,  sickness,  accidents,  inventions,  individ- 
ual shut-downs  and  industrial  crises  are  potent 
factors  in  the  financing  of  a  family,  since  they  result 
in  diminishing  or  extinguishing  income,  temporarily 
or  permanently.  Nevertheless,  overwork,  sickness, 
accidents  and  inventions  are  accidental  factors  since 
they  occur  to  the  individual  at  unpredictable  inter- 
vals. Considerable  space  has  been  devoted  to  them 
in  an  attempt  to  show  their  far-reaching  influence, 
yet  since  they  represent  the  unusual,  rather  than  the 
usual,  they  will  be  dismissed  from  the  study  at  this 
point,  and  the  workingman  with  a  normal  quota  of 
health  and  vigor  will  alone  be  considered.  Such  an 
assumption  must  brush  aside  all  objections  to  the 
effect  that  the  analysis  deals  with  abnormal  condi- 
tions. Again,  the  conclusions  based  on  such  an  as- 
sumption will  necessarily  represent  a  conservative 
rather  than  an  extreme  estimate,  an  end  most  de- 
sirable in  all  scientific  studies.  Unemployment  is 
measurable  and  must  still  be  dealt  with  in  connection 
with  wages.  From  this  point  on,  therefore,  the 
workingman  under  consideration,  will  be  a  man  of 
ordinary  vigor  and  health,  suffering  from  no  dis- 
ability, like  old  age,  fatigue,  accident  or  sickness. 


32     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

IX.    Supplementary  Income  Sources. 

Whatever  the  limitations  on  the  earning  capacity 
of  the  family  head,  his  income  may  be  supplemented 
in  three  ways: 

1.  The  wage-earner  may  engage  in  a  secondary 

occupation. 

2.  His  wife  may  take  up  some  gainful  occupation. 

3.  His  children  may  engage  in  a  gainful  occupa- 

tion. 

The  wage-earner,  himself,  may  take  up  some 
secondary  occupation  and  thus  supplement  his  regu- 
lar wage.  Outside  of  regular  working  hours,  or  if 
he  is  engaged  in  a  seasonal  trade,  then  during  the 
slack  season,  he  may  engage  in  some  incidental, 
transient  work.  Of  the  secondary  occupation,  the 
prevalence  is,  perhaps,  best  indicated  by  a  group  of 
Massachusetts  figures  collected  during  a  year  when 
trade  conditions  were  abnormally  bad.  The  extent 
of  regular  and  '' other  ^'  or  secondary  employment, 
for  April,  1895  (the  month  showing  the  largest  num- 
ber of  persons  employed)  follows :  ^^ 

Males.  Females. 

Regular  emplovment  616,388  253,860 

"Other"  employment   13,133  1,926 

Per  cent,  of  "other"  or  regular  employment    2.1%  .7% 

Thus,  only  two  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  less  than 
one  per  cent,  of  the  females  reported  a  secondary 
occupation.    "While  far  from  conclusive,  the  figures 

«o  Massachusetts  Census  of  Manufacturers,  vol.  VII,  p.  91,  1895. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      33 

indicate  that  secondary  occupations  are  not  a  large 
source  of  supplementary  family  income. 

The  wife  may  take  up  some  gainful  occupation. 
She  may  either  go  out  to  work  in  the  factory,  bring 
home  work  from  the  factory,  take  boarders,  or  en- 
gage in  some  productive  enterprise,  such  as  store- 
keeping,  dressmaking  and  the  like. 

The  entrance  of  women  into  gainful  occupations 
is  quite  a  general  phenomenon  in  the  United  States. 
Of  the  13^810,057  married  women,  769,477,  or  5.6 
per  cent,  were  engaged  in  some  form  of  gainful  oc- 
cupation in  1900.  While  this  work  of  the  wife  for 
wages  is  most  noticeable  among  the  negroes,  never- 
theless, among  pative  and  foreign  white^  8  per  cent, 
of  the  married  women  are  gainfully  employed.^^ 

In  the  cities,  the  system  of  taking  work  from  the 
factory  into  the  home  (the  sweating  system)  is  fairly 
prevalent,  affording  many  married  women  an  op- 
portunity of  adding  to  the  family  income  without 
leaving  the  home.  While  it  is  impossible  to  make 
any  definite  statement  regarding  the  extent  of  the 
sweated  industries,  sweating  is  sufficiently  preva- 
lent to  arouse  widespread  comment.^^ 

The  keeping  of  boarders  and  lodgers  among  cer- 
tain groups  of  the  population,  furnishes  a  very  con- 
si  Statistics  of  Women  at  Work,  U.  S.  Census  Bureau,  p.  15,  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington,  1907. 

32  Report  of  the  Industrial  Commission,  volumes  8,  14,  15,  17,  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington,  1902.  Reports  of  the  New 
York  Department  of  Tenement  House  Inspection  and  the  New  York 
Bureau  of  Labor.  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners  in  the  United 
States,  vol.  II,  chapter  5,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
1911.     Reports  of  the  Immigration  Commission. 


34     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

siderable  addition  to  family  income.  The  investiga- 
tion made  by  tlie  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  in 
1903  showed  that  of  25,440  families,  5,367  had  9,120 
boarders,  while  684  families  had  1,876  lodgers. 
Thus  21.1  per  cent,  of  all  of  the  families  had  boarders 
and  2.7  per  cent,  had  lodgers.^^ 

Children  work  rather  extensively.  The  total 
number  of  child  laborers  in  the  United  States  was 
more  than  a  million  and  three-quarters  in  1900. 
This  did  not  include  the  children  working  as  mer- 
chants, namely — the  newsboys,  match  sellers,  and 
other  children  who  buy  and  sell  on  their  own  ac- 
count. In  recent  years,  child  labor  laws  have  been 
rather  generally  enacted,  which  usually  prohibited 
the  working  of  children  under  fourteen  years  of  age, 
thus  depriving  the  family  of  any  income  which  the 
young  child  might  earn. 

The  relative  proportions  contributed  to  family  in- 
come by  the  wage-earner,  by  his  wife  and  his  chil- 
dren will  be  analyzed  in  a  later  section.  Suffice  it 
to  say,  at  this  point,  that  the  income  of  wage-earners ' 
families  is  frequently  supplemented  in  one  or  more  of 
the  ways  just  indicated.  In  some  instances,  this  sup- 
plementing is  voluntary,  in  other  cases  compulsory. 
Some  Southern  mill  towns  fall  in  the  latter  class. 
* '  The  incomes  of  cotton  mill  families  are  composite ; 
that  is,  they  are  made  up  of  the  wages  of  several 
workers.  The  so-called  normal  family-father,  with 
wife  and  children  dependent  upon  him  for  support, 

33  Annual  Report  of  the  Commission  of  Labor,  p.  260,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington,  1904. 


FINANCING  A  WOHKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      35 

is  not  a  normal  cotton-mill  family.  Indeed,  this 
type  of  family  is  rare,  because  it  is  almost  impossible 
for  it  to  exist.  At  one  mill  studied  there  were  only 
five  individuals  whose  daily  wage  amounted  to  $1.25 
or  more  per  day.  The  wages  of  these  individuals 
were  $2,  $1.50,  $1.28,  $1.25,  and  $1.25.  This  means 
that  in  that  community  it  would  have  been  possible 
for  one  man  only  to  support  a  wife  and  three  young 
children  according  to  the  fair  standard  of  living; 
and  this  would  have  been  impossible  unless  he 
worked  300  days  in  the  year.  There  was  only  one 
other  individual  whose  earnings  were  sufficient  to 
support  a  family  of  this  size  even  in  accordance  with 
the  minimum  standard."  ^* 

Nevertheless,  the  extent  to  which  these  supple- 
mental earnings  can  raise  the  family  income  is  usu- 
ally definitely  limited  by  the  earning  capacity  of  the 
woman,  and  the  size  of  the  house  in  which  the  family 
lives.  The  earning  power  of  both  unskilled  women 
and  children,  is  not  only  low  but  very  uniform 
throughout  the  country,  and  since  the  average  dwell- 
ing place  of  the  wage-earner  is  restricted  in  size,  the 
possibility  of  taking  boarders  is  not  considerable. 

The  wage-earner's  income  is  thus  limited,  on  the 
one  hand  by  the  rigid  organization  of  the  modem 
wage  system,  and  on  the  other  hand,  by  the  zero  line 
of  no  earnings.  An  analysis  of  his  expenditures 
reveals  the  fact  that  the  exact  reverse  of  the  above 
statement  holds  true,  for  while  his  income  has  a 

s*  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners  in  the  United  States,  vol.  16, 
p.   153,  Government  Printing  Office,  Wasliington,   1911. 


36     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FA^IILY 

definite  upward  limit  and  no  lower  limit,  expendi- 
tures liave  a  definite  lower  limit  and  no  upward 
limit. 

X.    The  Minimum  of  Subsistence. 

Every  family  must  be  provided  with  a  minimum 
amount  of  clothing,  food,  and  shelter,  if  life  is  to  be 
maintained.  Furthermore,  the  necessity  for  these 
things  is  continuous.  Whether  the  wage-earner  is 
employed  or  unemployed,  the  bills  of  the  landlord, 
the  grocer  and  the  butcher  come  with  appalling  regu- 
larity. Whether  he  is  earning  or  is  not  earning  in- 
come, he  must  give  his  family  a  minimum  of  sub- 
sistence, setting  a  limit  of  expenditure  below  which 
misery  and  starvation  will  sit  at  the  family  table. 
There  is  here  no  assertion  that  people  are  miserable 
and  starving.  The  course  of  the  argument  demands, 
however,  the  recognition  of  a  minimum  limit  for 
every  family  beyond  which  misery  and  starvation 
are  inevitable. 

While  the  lower  limit  of  expenditure  is  thus  defi- 
nitely set  by  a  minimum  of  subsistence,  its  upward 
limit  is  established  by  only  one  factor — the  capacity 
of  the  workingman  to  run  into  debt.  To  be  sure, 
over  a  series  of  years,  it  is  impossible  for  a  family  to 
spend  more  than  its  income,  but  over  short  periods, 
expenditures  may  be  continued  even  though  income 
is  discontinued,  because  it  is  customary  for  trades- 
men in  industrial  districts  to  *' carry '^  customers 
over  strikes,  periods  of  sickness,  and  unemployment. 
In  financing  a  workingman 's  family,  the  ordinary  ex- 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      37 

penditures  (those  involved  in  providing  the  neces- 
saries of  life)  are  no  less  insistent  in  their  demands 
than  the  extraordinary  expenditures.  Sickness 
brings  its  bills  for  medical  attendance,  medicines 
and  choice  foods ;  births  and  deaths  carry  with  them 
an  inevitable  outlay  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  ex- 
penses. Thus,  the  minimum  of  expenditure  is  es- 
tablished by  the  necessity  of  existence,  while  its 
maximum  varies  with  extraordinary  expenditures, 
reaching  its  high  point  only  when  it  has  reached  the 
debt  limit. 

A  very  dp^i-nif,^  (contrast  may,  therefore,  be  made 
between  income  and  expenditure.  The  maximum  in^ 
come  is  limited  by  the  character  of  the  occupation. 
The  minimum  of  income  is  zero.  In  the  case  of  ex- 
penditures, however,  the  maximum  is  limited  only 
by  borrowing  capacity,  while  the  minimum  is  set  by 
the  outlay  necessary  to  provide  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence. 

If  the  maximum  wage  which  an  ordinary  American 
workingman  can  earn  is  considerably  above  the  sub- 
sistence level,  the  problem  of  financing  his  family  is 
a  comparatively  simple  one.  If,  however,  the  max- 
imum wage  is  about  equal  to  the  subsistence,  then 
a  partial  or  entire  cessation  of  income,  or  a  series 
of  extraordinary  expenditures  would  inevitably  re- 
sult in  poverty  and  misery.  If  the  former  hypoth- 
esis is  the  correct  one — that  is,  if  wages  in  the 
United  States  greatly  exceed  the  expenditures  neces- 
sary to  provide  subsistence,  then  prosperity  should 
be  widespread.    If,  however,  the  latter  hypothesis 


38     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

is  the  correct  one — that  is,  if  wages  are  about  equal 
to  the  cost  of  subsistence,  then  an  investigation  of 
living  conditions  should  show  hardships  and  poverty 
among  the  families  of  the  most  poorly  paid  workers. 

!XZ.    The  Effects  of  Low  Standards  of  Living. 

Fortunately,  considerable  data  has  been  collected 
during  the  past  decade,  in  a  number  of  thorough-go- 
ing investigations^^  which  point  rather  directly  to 
the  conclusion  that  there  is  a  sharp  conflict  be- 
tween income  and  the  standard  of  subsistence,  and 

85  The  most  elaborate  of  the  investigations  which  have  been  made 
into  conditions  in  the  United  States  are: 

1.  The  Report  of  the  Federal  Industrial  Commission — 1900.     (Nine- 

teen volumes — excellently  indexed)  containing  a  great  amount 
of  testimony  from  individuals  of  every  class,  together  with 
several  expert  studies  of  sweating,  housing  and  the  like. 

2.  The  Hearings   before   the  Anthracite   Coal  Strike   Commission — 

1902.  The  ten  thousand  typewritten  pages  contain  much 
valuable  information  about  the  living  conditions  of  anthra- 
cite coal  miners. 

3.  The  Pittsburgh  Survey,  made  by  a  staff  of  expert  investigators  in 

1907-8  and  published  in  eight  volumes  by  the  Charities  Pub- 
lication Committee,  New  York. 

4.  The  Federal   Investigation   into    the   Conditions   of   Woman   and 

Child  Wage-Earners,  made  during  1907,  1908,  and  1909,  and 
published  during  1911,  1912  and  1913  in  nineteen  volumes  pic- 
tures very  graphically,  and  in  great  detail  the  problem  as  it 
presents  itself  in  those  industries  employing  great  numbers  of 
women  and  children. 

5.  The  Report  of  the  Federal  Immigration  Commission,  covering  the 

years  1909-1911,  published  1912,  presents,  in  great  detail,  a 
picture  of  the  working  and  living  conditions  in  various  parts 
of  the   country. 

6.  The  Federal  Bureau  of  Labor  and  the  State  Bureaus,  notably  in 

Illinois,  Kansas,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  New  Jer- 
sey, New  York  and  Wisconsin,  publish  reports  and  bulletins 
dealing  with  every  phase  of  living  conditions  among  the 
working  population. 

7.  The  Survey,  a  publication  issued  by  a  group  of  social  workers  in 

New  York  (105  E.  22nd  street)  contains  weekly  statements 
of  material  bearing  on  living  conditions. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      39 

that  in  a  very  large  number  of  cases,  income  falls 
below  the  minimum  of  subsistence.  Eowntree  is 
probably  correct  when  he  assumes  that  there  are 
several  times  in  the  life  of  the  average  workingman 
when  he  drops  below  the  subsistence  line,  so  that  he, 
or  the  members  of  his  family  suffer  from  insufficient 
food,  clothing  and  shelter.  The  facts  at  hand  indi- 
cate that  there  are  now,  in  the  United  States,  able- 
bodied,  vigorous  men,  who,  in  spite  of  their  best 
efforts,  are  unable  to  provide  adequately  for  their 
families.  The  most  dependable  investigations  cov- 
ering congestion,  housing,  malnutrition,  poverty, 
vice,  crime,  and  related  topics  show  beyond  the  pos- 
sibility of  cavil  that  in  some  of  the  wealthiest  and 
most  prosperous  centers  of  the  United  States  there 
is  an  appalling  amount  of  poverty  and  misery. 

XII.     Underfeeding. 

By  way  of  illustration,  for  the  limitations  of  this 
chapter  will  not  permit  of  an  exhaustive  discussion, 
consider  the  latest  data  relating  to  the  under-feed- 
ing of  school  children.  The  absence  of  an  adequate 
food  supply  among  children  is,  perhaps,  the  clearest 
indication  of  the  presence  of  poverty,  hence  the 
presence  of  underfed  children  would  be  an  indica- 
tion of  the  existence  of  a  disproportion  between  in- 
come and  a  subsistence  wage. 

One  thorough  investigation  of  hungry  children,  in- 
cluding only  the  children  between  six  and  sixteen 
years,  was  made  by  the  Chicago  Board  of  Education. 
Here  are  some  extracts  from  the  official  report. 


40     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

''Five  thousand  children  who  attend  the  schools  are 
habitually  hungry,"  while  ten  thousand  other  chil- 
dren ''do  not  have  nourishing  food."  The  report 
further  states  that  "many  children  lack  shoes  and 
clothing.  Many  have  no  beds  to  sleep  in.  They 
cuddle  together  on  hard  floors.  The  majority  of  the 
indigent  children  live  in  damp,  unclean  or  over- 
crowded homes  that  lack  proper  ventilation  and 
sanitation.  Here,  in  the  damp,  ill-smelling  base- 
ments, there  is  only  one  thing  regarded  as  cheaper 
than  rent,  and  that  is  the  life  of  the  child.  We  find 
that  a  large  number  of  children  have  only  bread, 
saturated  in  water,  for  breakfast  day  after  day; 
that  the  noon  meal  is  bread  or  bananas,  and  an  oc- 
casional luxury  of  soup  made  from  pork  bones; 
that  children  often  frequent  South  Water  street, 
begging  for  dead  fowl  in  the  crates,  or  decayed  fruit ; 
that  others  have  been  found  searching  for  food  in 
alley  garbage  boxes." 

Chicago  is  not  alone.  Similar  investigations  in 
other  cities  reveal  the  same  conditions  of  underfeed- 
ing. Louise  Stevens  Bryant,  after  an  exhaustive 
study  on  the  subject,  summarizes  the  facts  regard- 
ing underfeeding  in  the  United  States,  by  saying : 

"As  a  general  conclusion  from  these  investiga- 
tions, it  seems  fair  to  place  the  probable  number  of 
seriously  underfed  school  children  in  New  York  and 
other  American  cities  at  10  per  cent,  of  the  school 
population."  ^^ 

86  Louise  Stevens  Bbyant,  FIcTiool  Feeding,  p.  204,  J.  B.  Lippin- 
cott  Company,  Philadelphia,  1913. 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      41 

XIII.    The  Worhingman's  Dilemma. 

A  host  of  similar  data  on  housing,  living  condi- 
tions, and  other  related  problems  bear  out  the  infer- 
ence deducible  from  the  facts  regarding  the  under- 
feeding of  children,  namely,  that  there  is  a 
discrepancy  between  present  day  incomes  and  a  sub- 
sistence standard  of  living.  Clearly,  then,  a  serious 
maladjustment  exists  between  income  and  subsist- 
ence. Before  determining  the  character  of  the  re- 
adjustment necessary  to  establish  normal  relations 
between  income  and  expenditure,  it  is  necessary  to 
discover  the  causes  of  the  present  maladjustment. 
The  extreme  possibilities  are  two : 

1.  Either  the  workingman  and  his  family  are  vi- 

cious, lazy,  indifferent,  and  wasteful — in 
which  case  his  failure  to  maintain  his  family 
above  the  poverty  line  is  due  to  his  own  in- 
efficiency. 

2.  Or  else  the  relation  between  possible  income 

and  necessary  expenditure  is  such  that  no 
matter  how  eflSciently  and  earnestly  he  may 
strive,  he  will  be  unable  to  maintain  a  decent 
standard  of  living. 

If  the  former  hypothesis  be  the  correct  one,  the 
remedy  for  the  present  situation  lies  in  increasing 
the  efficiency  of  consumption  through  some  method 
of  education.  If,  however,  the  latter  hypothesis  be 
correct,  no  amount  of  efficiency  in  consumption,  of 
earnestness^  of  sobriety,  will  avail  a  certain  group  of 


42     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EAENER'S  FAMILY 

workers  against  the  clutches  of  poverty  and  misery. 
The  present  maladjustment  may,  of  course,  be  the 
product  of  both  factors,  nevertheless,  the  issue  will 
be  clearly  drawn  if  it  can  be  shown  that  incomes  are 
insufficient  to  meet  necessary  expenditures. 

Considerable  work  has  already  been  done  in  an 
effort  to  analyze  the  former  hypothesis.  Principles 
of  Relief,  by  Edward  T.  Devine  (Macmillan,  New 
York,  1903) ;  Misery  and  Its  Causes,  by  Edward  T. 
Devine  (Macmillan,  New  York,  1909) ;  Poverty 
by  Eowntree  (Macmillan,  London,  1901) ;  Poverty, 
by  Hunter  (Macmillan,  New  York,  1904) ;  and 
American  Charities,  by  Warner  (Crowell,  New  York, 
1894)  have  discussed  the  personal  factors — vic(5, 
shiftlessness  and  efficiency — which  result  in  poverty 
and  misery.  Comparatively  little  effort  has  been 
made,  however,  to  analyze  the  latter  hypothesis  and 
to  determine  the  existing  relation  between  a  work- 
ingman's  income  and  expenditure  on  the  one  hand, 
and  a  decent  standard  of  living  on  the  other.  In  fact, 
until  very  lately,  the  data  has  not  been  available, 
from  which  a  study  along  this  line  could  be  made. 
Several  recent  publications,  dealing  with  wages, 
prices  and  living  standards  furnish,  however,  a 
group  of  facts  for  a  study  which  shall  determine 
whether,  in  view  of  the  conditions  now  prevailing, 
the  wages  paid  to  American  workingmen  are  suffi- 
cient to  enable  them  to  maintain  a  standard  of  living. 
The  study,  based  on  this  data,  will  aim  to  answer 
four  questions ; 


FINANCING  A  WORKINGMAN'S  FAMILY      43 

1.  What  amount  of  economic  goods  is  necessary 

to  maintain  a  standard  of  living  in  the  United 
States? 

2.  How  much  will  these  goods  cost? 

3.  Are  the  wages  of  adult  males  sufficient  to  pur- 

chase such  a  sum  of  goods  ? 

4.  Does  the  income  of  the  entire  family  admit 

of  their  purchase? 


CHAPTER  II 

The  Standard  of  Living 

I.    The  Meaning  of  "Standard  of  Living.'* 

What  amount  of  economic  goods  is  necessary  to 
maintain  a  standard  of  living  in  the  United  States'? 
An  adequate  answer  to  that  question  must  be  impos- 
sible without  a  definite  idea  of  the  meaning  of 
** standard  of  living."  The  term  is  most  general, 
and  any  limitations  upon  it  must  of  necessity  be 
arbitrary;  yet  some  definition  of  the  term  forms  a 
necessary  basis  for  discussion.  "A  standard  of  liv- 
ing," writes  the  New  York  Committee  on  Standards, 
''is  a  measurement  of  life  expressed  in  a  daily  rou- 
tine which  is  determined  by  income  and  the  condi- 
tions under  which  it  is  earned,  economic  and  social 
environment  and  the  capacity  of  distributing  the  in- 
come."^ More  briefly  the  standard  of  living  is 
the  measure  of  livelihood  for  any  given  family  unit, 
in  terms  of  income  and  expenditure. 

77.    Standard  of  Living  Estimates. 

There  are  four  distinct  methods  of  approaching 
the  standard  of  living  problem.    In  the  seventeenth 

1 E.  C.  Chapin,  The  Standard  of  Living  in  "New  York  City,  pp.  255- 
256,  Charities  Publication  Committee,  New  York,  1909. 

44 


THE  STANDARD  OP  LIVING  45 

and  eighteenth  centuries,  a  number  of  students 
who  were  interested  in  the  conditions  of  working 
people,  attempted  to  reach  some  scientific  decision 
regarding  them,  by  estimating  on  the  one  hand  the 
amount  of  wages  which  working  people  got,  and  on 
the  other  hand,  the  amount  of  expenditures  which 
they  made  for  various  purposes.  In  these  estimates 
nothing  was  included  except  food,  clothing  and  mis- 
cellaneous items.  A  similar  method  was  adopted  by 
the  New  York  Committee  on  Standards  of  Living, 
as  a  preliminary  to  their  detailed  investigation. 
Sixteen  social  workers  were  asked  to  name  the 
amount  upon  which  a  family  could  maintain  a  decent 
standard  of  living.  The  replies^  show  a  variation 
from  $768  to  $1,449  for  a  family  consisting  of  man, 
wife  and  three  children.  Although  the  Committee 
explains  that  the  experts  did  not  all  estimate  on  the 
same  basis,  there  is  a  very  obvious  divergence  of 
opinion  among  them.  A  reliance  on  estimates  is 
clearly  unscientific,  hence  this  method  of  computing 
standards  was  early  supplanted  by  scientific  analyses 
of  the  actual  income  and  expenditures  in  working^ 
men's  families.  This  is  the  second  method  of  stiidy- 
ing  the  problem. 

III.    The  Analysis  of  Individual  Family  Budgets. 

The  second  method  of  study,  developed  by  Eden 
and  LePlay,  and  applied  in  a  number  of  modern  in- 
vestigations, consists  in  an  analysis  of  the  budgets 

2  Ibid.,  p.  259. 


46     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

of  individual  families.  A  careful  schedule  of  ques- 
tions is  prepared,  dealing  with  all  of  the  facts  which 
it  is  necessary  to  secure,  and  answers  to  these  ques- 
tions are  then  obtained  by  personal  visits  to  the 
families  which  are  to  be  investigated.  As  the  sched- 
ules are  sometimes  very  long — the  budget  of  one  of 
LePlay's  workingmen  occupies  twenty-seven  printed 
pages,  while  the  schedule  of  questions  on  which  the 
Chapin  study  was  based  occupied  fifteen  printed 
pages — the  greatest  skill  is  necessary  for  their  prep- 
aration. Such  studies  were  made  by  Dr.  D.  E^ 
Foreman,^  by  Mrs.  Louisa  B.  Moore,^  by  E.  G.  Herz- 
feld,'*  and  by  the  investigators  in  the  Woman  and 
Child  Wage-Earners  report.^ 

In  these  studies,  each  family  budget  is  treated 
and  analyzed  as  an  individual  unit.  Under  Eden 
and  LePlay,  the  method  ended  with  this  individual 
treatment.  In  the  hands  of  later  writers,  notably 
the  authors  of  the  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners 
study,  the  method  has  been  carried  much  farther. 
Chapin,  in  his  study,  pays  little  attention  to  the  in- 
dividual budget. 

The  treatment  of  family  budgets  as  individual 
xmits  has  this  great  advantage  over  the  first  method 
— that  the  data  collected  is  exact,  reliable  and  specif- 
ically connected  with  the  problems  of  one  family. 
On  the  other  hand,  its  main  defects  are  that  the  con- 

8  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  Bulletin  No.  64,  May,  1906. 
*  Wage-Earners  Budgets,  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York,  1907. 
^New  York,  The  J.  Kempster  Printing  Co.,   1907. 
6  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners,  vol.  16,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  1911. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  47 

ditions  applicable  to  one  family  are  never  entirely 
similar  to  those  applicable  in  another  family,  and 
hence,  the  results  of  the  study  cannot  be  made  the 
basis  for  a  statistical  statement  of  the  standard  of 
living  problem.  Any  conclusion  which  is  reached 
holds  for  the  family  under  consideration,  and  for 
that  family  only. 

IV.    The  Averaging  of  Income  and  Expenditure. 

In  order  to  overcome  this  diflBculty,  a  third  method 
has  been  resorted  to,  namely,  that  of  averaging  the 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  a  number  of  families. 
While  this  method  was  first  inaugurated  at  the 
Brussels  Statistical  Conference  in  1853,  and  per- 
fected by  Ernest  Engel  in  his  later  studies,  it  has 
never  been  more  completely  worked  out  than  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  in  its  annual  report 
for  1903.  That  report  contains  an  analysis  of  the 
'l^udgets  of  25,440  workingmen's  families;  again,  in 
greater  detail,  the  analysis  of  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures in  2,567  ** selected"  families  from  the  larger 
group;  and,  finally,  of  the  income  and  expenditures 
in  11,156  *' normal"  families — families  having  "a 
husband  at  work ;  a  wife ;  not  more  than  five  children, 
and  none  over  fourteen  years  of  age;  and  no  de- 
pendent, boarder,  lodger,  or  servant. ' '  Throughout 
this  report,  no  statement  is  made  of  the  individual 
family  budget,  and  the  introduction  to  the  study  is  so 
incomplete  as  to  leave  the  reader  in  considerable 
doubt  as  to  the  scientific  accuracy  of  the  methods 
pursued.    What  kind  of  a  schedule  was  used?    The 


'4S     FINANCING  THE  :WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

report  states  (p,  15-16)  that  *'The  investigation  was 
limited  to  families  of  wage-workers  and  of  persons 
on  salaries  not  exceeding  $1,200  per  year."  All 
schedules  "cover  a  period  of  one  year.'*  The  work 
was  done  *'by  experienced  special  agents"  of  the 
Bureau,  and  these  agents  by  familiarizing  themselves 
with  each  locality  were  enabled  "to  verify,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  the  statements ' '  of  the  housewives.  * '  Of 
necessity,  much  of  the  information  was  given  from 
memory,  although  some  families  were  found  that 
kept  correct  book  accounts." 

Thus  the  work  was  not  done  with  the  same  accu- 
racy that  has  characterized  several  of  the  later 
studies.  Nevertheless,  it  represents,  perhaps,  the 
best  extensive  collection  of  data  in  this  form. 
Families  were  investigated  in  thirty-three  States, 
"apportioned  according  to  the  number  of  persons 
employed  in  the  manufacturing  industries  of  the 
State."     (P.  15.) 

The  entire  group  of  families,  and  the  "selected" 
families,  do  not  present  nearly  so  interesting  a 
problem  as  the  "normal"  families,  because  the  lat- 
ter, according  to  their  classification,  are  very  similar 
to  the  families  accepted  as  "normal,"  in  later 
studies.  In  these  11,156  "normal"  families,  the  in- 
come and  the  expenditures  for  the  various  items  in 
the  budget  were :  "^ 

Total  average  income  $650.98 

Total  average  expenditure   $617.80 

f  Annual  Report,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  p.  569,  1903,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  1904. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  49 

Percentage  of  this  expenditure  made  for — 

Food    43.13% 

Rent   18.12% 

Clothing     12.95% 

Fuel    4.57% 

Lighting    1.12% 

Sundries    20.11% 

These  percentages  of  expenditure  are  almost  ex- 
actly the  same  as  those  derived  in  other  studies,  ex- 
cept that  the  ''sundries"  item  is  far  too  large.  If 
an  analysis  could  be  made  of  "lighting"  to  1.12  per 
cent.,  there  are  surely  some  items  in  ''sundries," 
such  for  example  as  "health,"  "insurance,"  "house- 
hold goods"  and  the  like,  which  would  analyze  to  a 
like  amount. 

These  general  statements  of  average  incomes  and 
expenditures  are  misleading,  unless  the  reader  un- 
derstands that  they  are  merely  group  pictures,  rep- 
resenting in  the  large,  a  composite  statement  of  con- 
ditions in  all  of  the  families  studied.  In  order  to 
secure  greater  accuracy,  two  methods  of  further 
analysis  are  employed — first  the  expenditures  may 
be  analyzed  by  the  size  of  the  family,  and  second  by 
the  size  of  the  income.  Both  methods  are  followed 
in  the  1903  Bureau  of  Labor  Eeport,  and  the  second 
is  followed  in  the  Chapin  study. 

The  income  and  expenditures  in  the  "normal" 
families  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Eeport  arranged  by 
the  size  of  the  family  are  as  follows :  ^ 

8  Ibid.,  p.  569. 


50     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 
Per  cent,  of  total  expenditures  made  for  various  purposes. 


u  a 

OS 

if 

ti) 

ti 

<o  a> 

.** 

•"  eS 

o 

c 

cS  ^ 

t— 1  *•-' 

'a 

^• 

3 

■TS 

Vi 

'^ 

"eS  ~ 

ol 

o 

o 

;§ 

to 

o^ 

^o 

H^ 

H  a. 

R^ 

rt 

6 

pq 

'^ 

OQ 

Ho 

0 

2,124 

$632.61 

40.33 

20.23 

12.43 

4.76 

1.14 

21.11 

100.00 

1 

2,579 

638.29 

41.74 

18.48 

12.64 

4.67 

1.14 

21.33 

100.00 

2 

2,700 

649.04 

43.21 

17.61 

13.03 

4.59 

1.13 

20.23 

100.00 

3 

1,973 

665.90 

44.56 

17.44 

13.17 

4.45 

1.10 

19.28 

100.00 

4 

1,248 

683.16 

45.69 

16.76 

13.36 

4.23 

1.08 

18.88 

100.00 

5 

532 

664.82 

47.24 

16.54 

13.85 

4.52 

1.04 

16.81 

100.00 

11,156     $650.98     43.13     18.12     12.95     4.57     1.12     20.11     100.00 

The  number  of  families  in  the  different  groups  is 
remarkably  uniform  for  the  first  four  groups.  In 
the  fifth  group  there  is  a  considerable  decrease,  how- 
ever, and  the  sixth  group  (five  children)  is  compara- 
tively small.  The  family  incomes  vary  but  slightly 
throughout,  indicating  that  among  these  families 
no  apparent  co-relation  exists  between  family  size 
and  size  of  income. 

In  the  expenditures,  however,  there  is  considerable 
variation.     The  families  with  children  are  spending 
one-sixth  more  for  food,  and  one-fifth  less  for  rent 
than  the  families  without  children.    While  the  ex- 
penditures for  fuel  and  light  remain  constant,  the 
*' sundries"  item  decreases  by  nearly  one-fourth. 
Frhe  increase  in  family  size,  making  more  mouths  to 
I   feed,  forces  the  family  into  smaller  quarters,  and 
1  cuts  heavily  into  expenditures  for  those  things  not 
1  absolutely  necessary  to  existence. 
^'^By  inference,  the  larger  the  family,  the  larger  the 
percentage  of  expenditure  for  food  and  the  smaller 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


51 


the  percentage  of  expenditure  for  rent.  Differently- 
stated,  increasing  family  size  is  accompanied  by  in- 
creasing food  and  decreasing  rent  expenditures. 

Although  the  report  gives  no  statement  as  to  the 
method  of  picking  the  families  considered,  it  is  of 
great  interest  to  note  that  the  average  incomes  of 
these  11,156  families  vary  from  $632  to  $683^ — a  vari- 
ation of  less  than  ten  per  cent,  and  that  the  largest 
average  income  is  not  enjoyed  by  the  largest 
families. 

The  classification  of  expenditure  in  these  11,156 
families  by  income  is  essentially  the  same  as  that 
appearing  in  Chapin's  New  York  Siudy.^  This  lat- 
ter presents  the  expenditures  by  percentages  for 
various  items. 

Percentage  of  total  incomes  expended  for  various  items,  iy  income 
group. — N'°,w  York,  1901-8. 


m 

a 

o 

a 

u 

s 

a 

■73 
O 
O 

.S 
o 

5 

u 

eS 

it 

a 

a 

<A 
u 

m 

m 

1 

$  400-  499 

8 

40.8 

26.8 

13.0 

5.6 

2.6 

1.2 

3.1 

6.9 

500-  599 

17 

44.4 

25.9 

12.4 

5.9 

1.8 

1.3 

1.9 

6.4 

600-  699 

72 

44.6 

23.6 

•  12.9 

5.8 

1.7 

2.0 

2.1 

7.3 

700-  799 

79 

45.6 

21.9 

13.4 

5.0 

1.5 

2.5 

1.9 

8.2 

800-  899 

73 

44.3 

20.7 

14.0 

5.0 

2.0 

2.2 

2.7 

9.1 

900-  999 

63 

44.7 

19.0 

14.6 

5.1 

1.5 

2.6 

2.6 

9.9 

1000-1099 

31 

44.7 

18.1 

15.5 

4.5 

1.8 

2.5 

1.5 

11.4 

1100-1199 

18 

45.6 

16.2 

14.9 

3.8 

1.9 

2.5 

3.6 

11.5 

1200-1299 

8 

45.0 

19.8 

15.2 

3.8 

2.2 

2.2 

1.3 

10.5 

1300-1399 

8 

43.6 

16.8 

13.7 

3.6 

1.1 

4.9 

1.1 

15.2 

1500-1599 

6 

36.8 

16.3 

16.8 

4.1 

1.2 

2.3 

7.4 

16.1 

The  percentage  of  expenditure  for  food  is  prac- 
tically stationary  between  $500  and  $1,400 ;  for  rent, 

»  Chapin,  op.  cit. 


52     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

the  expenditure  decreases  steadily  as  income  in- 
creases up  to  $1,000,  after  which  it  remains  practi- 
cally stable;  the  expenditure  for  clothing  increases 
slightly,  though  it  is  fairly  stable;  the  expenditure 
for  fuel  and  light  decreases  above  $1,100,  while  the 
percentages  expended  for  carfare,  insurance  and 
health  vary  with  the  family  rather  than  with  the  in- 
come. The  remaining  item, ' '  sundries, "  is  of  course 
much  larger  in  the  higher  income  groups. 

/Tho-^ontrast  between  the  expenditures  of  the  low 
income  families  where  the  struggle  for  existence  is 
sharp,  and  of  the  high  income  families  where  the 
struggle  is  much  less  keen,  is  most  interesting.. 
While  both  groups  of  families  spend  the'*same^ra\ 
portion  of  income  for  food,  the  expenditure  for  rent 
is  much  higher  in  the  lower  income  family ;  and  that 
for  clothing  is  much  higher  in  the  higher  income^ 
family.  The  rent  expenditure  is  necessary, 
clothing  expenditure  is  not. 

To  the  statistician  these  analyses  of  income  and 
expenditure  by  family  size,  by  income  group,  by 
nationality,  and  by  locality  present  alluring  possi- 
bilities, since  such  statistics  are  the  legitimate  ob- 
ject of  a  many-sided  statistical  analysis;  yet  they 
fail  absolutely  to  make  any  connection  with  liveli- 
hood. After  learning  that  the  foreign  families  in 
Massachusetts,  having  more  than  two  and  less  than 
five  children,  spent,  on  the  average,  $668  annually, 
37  per  cent,  of  which  went  for  food,  the  reader  is  a 
little  puzzled  to  know  how  such  a  statement  will  as- 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  53 

sist  him  in  determining  whether  the  said  foreign- 
born  escaped  the  acutest  pangs  of  hunger. 

In  short,  this  third  method  of  considering  the 
standard  of  living  problem  presents,  as  accurately 
as  is  statistically  possible,  the  condition  of  a  group 
of  families,  giving  the  average  of  income  and  of 
expenditure.  If  this  method  is  combined  with  the 
second,  and  representative  individual  family  budgets 
are  given,  a  very  good  picture  of  existing  conditions 
is  secured.  "While  this  method  of  approaching  the 
standard  of  living  problem  affords  some  excellent 
data  regarding  actual  living  conditions,  it  does  not 
yet  give  a  contrast  between  the  amount  of  goods 
which  an  income  will  buy,  and  the  amount  of  goods 
needed  to  maintain  a  standard  of  living  in  any  given 
case.  For  a  statement  of  this  contrast,  we  must 
proceed  to  another  method  of  studying  living  stand- 
ards. No  one  of  these  first  three  methods  of  study- 
ing the  standard  of  living,  and  no  combination  of 
them  will  answer  the  root  question  regarding  the 
amount  of  income  necessary  to  maintain  the  ejffi- 
ciency  of  workingmen  and  their  families. 

There  is  only  one  way  in  which  a  conclusion  can 
be  reached  on  this  important  point — the  investigator 
must  determine  what  amount  of  economic  goods  is 
necessary  to  the  maintenance — first  of  a  standard  of 
subsistence  which  will  permit  the  family  to  maintain 
its  existence  as  a  social  unit,  and  second,  of  a  stand- 
ard which  will  maintain  the  efficiency  of  the  members 
of  the  family  group  under  consideration.    ''Only 


54     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

those  estimates  of  the  cost  of  a  normal  standard  of 
living  are  sound  which  ,are  based  on  a  given  social 
unit,  and  on  the  cost  of  the  essential  elements  of 
that  standard  in  a  given  community,  and  at  a  given 
time.  Can  these  costs  be  determined  in  such  a  way 
as  to  make  society  believe  they  are  well  founded? 
To  this  question,  I  answer:  "Yes,  I  believe  they 
can.  * '  ^"^  The  studies  which  have  been  completed 
since  Mr.  Tucker  made  this  statement,  amply  con- 
firm his  judgment — proving  beyond  cavil  that  it  is 
possible  to  determine  the  amount  and  the  cost  of  a 
supply  of  goods  which  will  insure  subsistence  and 
efficiency. 

F.    "Goods*'  as  a  Basis  for  Study. 

The  inquirer  may,  therefore,  attack  the  standard 
of  living  problem  at  an  angle  different  from  any  so 
far  outlined,  and  instead  of  starting  with  the  earn- 
ings and  expenditures  of  workingmen's  families, 
premise  the  discussion  on  an  answer  to  the  question 
— ''What  amount  of  economic  goods  will  a  given 
•unit — di.  man  or  family — need  to  maintain  a  stand- 
ard of  living?*^*  Emphasis  is  thus  placed  on  the 
object — a  standard  of  living,  rather  than  on  the 
means — income  and  expenditure.  This  method 
premises  a  theoretical  standard,  and  then  compares 
this  standard  with  the  expenditures  being  made,  in 
any  given  case,  in  order  to  determine  whether  these 

10  Fbank  Titckeb,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Standard  of  Living. 
R.  C.  Chapin,  The  Standard  of  Living  in  'Sew  York  City,  p.  257, 
Charities  Publication  Committee,  1909. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  55 

expenditures  will  provide  sufficient  economic  goods 
to  furnish,  a  standard,  either  of  bare  subsistence,  or 
of  efficiency. 

Both  ''subsistence"  and  "efficiency"  necessarily 
enter  into  any  discussion  of  standards.  Formerly 
it  was  taken  for  granted  that  if  a  family  was  pro- 
vided with  a  subsistence,  everything  necessary  had 
been  done.  During  recent  years,  however,  par- 
ticularly in  Germany,  great  emphasis  has  been  laid 
^n  the  maintenance  of  ^ffiHency  aa  well  as  of  sub-" 
sistence.^  starting  as  an  industrial  concept,  aimed 
at  the  preservation  of  the  workers  for  industrial  or 
for  military  purposes,  the  efficiency  idea  has  spread 
into  social  fields,  until  there  is  a  general  recognition 
of  the  desirability  of  maintaining  an  efficiency  stand- 
ard in  every  phase  of  life. 

An  adequate  approach  to  the  study  of  living 
standards  must,  therefore,  be  based  on  a  measure  of 
the  amount  of  goods  which  will  maintain  the  sub- 
sistence or  the  efficiency  of  a  given  group;  and  it 
must  proceed  along  lines  which  will  show  how  many 
of  the  incomes  in  the  community  will  permit  the 
maintenance  of  such  a  standard.  , 

VI.    The  Elements  in  a  Standard  of  Living. 

There  are  certain  elements  which  necessarily  en- 
ter into  a  standard  of  living.  These  are  differently 
classed  by  different  writers.  Shadwell  cites  the  fol- 
lowing elaborate  schedule  which  he  has  adopted 
from  the  Germans:  ^^ 

11  Aethub  Shadwell,  Industrial  Efficiency,  pp.  224-225,  Long- 
mans, Green,  &  Co.,  New  York,  1906. 


56     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

1.  Necessaries  of  life : 

a  Eent,  fuel,  light. 

h  Clothing. 

c  Food;  at  home  and  in  the  eating-house. 

d  Locomotion  (train,  omnibus,  etc.). 

e  Tools. 

2.  Compulsory  disbursements : 

a    Contribution  to  sick,  insurance,  etc. 

h     Taxes. 

c    School-pence  and  books. 

3.  Bodily  and  mental  recreation: 

a  Baths. 

h  Public-house. 

c  Spirits  (presumably  at  home)'. 

d  Tobacco. 

e  Newspapers  and  books. 

/  Amusements. 

4.  Voluntary  subscriptions: 

a    Insurance. 

h    Clubs  and  trade  unions. 

5.  Other  regular  expenses. 

6.  Extraordinary  expenses: 

a    Doctor,  medicine,  sickness. 

h    Furniture,  breakages. 

c    Debt,  interest  and  repayment. 

In  the  more  detailed  and  technical  study  of  stand- 
ards of  living,  such  an  extensive  classification  may 
be  desirable,  but  for  the  purposes  of  ordinary  dis- 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  57 

cussion  it  is  unnecessary.  Indeed,  the  brief  classi- 
fication used  by  Chapin  will  prove  adequate  in  most 
respects.  He  classifies  the  expenditures  as  those 
for — 

1.  Food. 

2.  Housing. 

3.  Clothing. 

4.  Fuel  and  light. 

5.  Carfare.  ^        ^ 
6J[ealth.., VL^  W^  4  w#^fcv,U-v^ 

7.  Insurance. 

8.  Sundry  minor  items. 

Having  accepted  the  classification  employed  by 
Dr.  Chapin  as  a  workable  one,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  inquire  what  amount  of  each  of  the  items  set 
down  in  his  list  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of 
a  standard  of  living. 

VII.    The  Requirements  for  Specific  Items  in  a 
Standard  of  Living. 

The  only  adequate  method  of  determining  what 
amount  of  goods  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of 
existence  or  of  efficiency,  is  based  on  an  analysis  of 
each  item  in  the  classification.  The  measurement 
of  the  amount  of  food  necessary  to  maintain  a  stand- 
ard of  living  is  by  far  the  easiest  part  of  the  prob- 
lem. Food  requirements  are  usually  measured 
in  calories  of  energy,  and  in  order  to  secure 
uniformity,  they  are  stated  in  terms  of  the  require- 
ments of  an  adult  man.    The  United  States  Depart- 


58     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAIMILY 

ment  of  Agriculture,  which  has  made  some  valuable 
experiments  on  food  values,  states  that  a  man  in  the 
fuU  vigor  of  life,  doing  moderate  muscular  work, 
requires  each  day  a  quantity  of  food  containing,  as 
it  is  purchased,  3,800  calories  of  energy.  By  the 
time  this  food  is  eaten,  it  will  contain  but  3,500 
calories,  from  which  quantity  the  digestive  system 
extracts  3,200  calories  of  energy.^^  After  an  analy- 
sis of  the  available  data,  Eowntree  concludes  that 
Atwater*s  estimate  of  3,500  calories  for  a  man  doing 
''moderate  muscular  work,"  must  be  interpreted  in 
terms  of  very  moderate  work  if  it  is  to  be  ade- 
quate.^^  Generally,  however,  it  is  conceded  that 
from  3,200  to  3,900  calories  of  energy,  depending 
upon  the  intensity  and  character  of  the  work  done, 
must  be  supplied  to  the  body  each  day. 

The  actual  amounts  of  food  consumed  vary  con- 
siderably from  this  standard.  Atwater  has  com- 
piled an  extensive  table,  in  which  he  sets  down  the 
results  of  '  *  comparing  the  dietaries  of  persons  with 
different  occupations  and  incomes,  and  performing 
different  amounts  of  muscular  work."  The  energy 
supplied  by  the  rowing  clubs  in  New  England,  for 
instance,  is  3,955  calories ;  by  football  teams  in  Con- 
necticut and  California,  6,590  calories;  by  farmers' 
families  in  Eastern  United  States,  3,415  calories; 
by  professional  men,  3,200  calories ;  by  poor  families 
in  New  York  City,  2,845   calories,   and  by  negro 

12  Tear  Book  of  tJie  U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  p.  371.  Article  by 
C.  F.  Langworthy,  1907. 

13  B.  L.  RowNTBEE,  Poverty,  pp.  91-97,  Macmillan  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Lon- 
don, 1901. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  59 

families  in  Alabama  and  Virginia,  3,395  calories.^* 
Since  the  dietaries  of  different  groups  differ  as  rad- 
ically in  their  content  as  do  the  various  foods  in 
their  energy  yielding  power,  the  computation  of  the 
dietary  value  of  any  group  is  a  purely  individual 
affair. 

In  order  to  analyze,  on  a  scientifically  comparable  "^^ 
basis,  the  diet  of  a  number  of  families,  Atwater  has       1 
prepared  a  system  of  comparing  the  dietary  re-     / 
quirements  of  women  and  children  with  those  of  an  / 
adult  man,  which  purports   to    show  the   relative 

amount  of  food  consumed  by  each.^^ 

\ 

An  adult  woman  requires...   .8  as  much  as  an  adult  man. 

A  boy  of  15  to  16   9  as  much  as  an  adult  man. 

A  boy  of  13  to  14 8  as  much  as  an  adult  man. 

A  boy  of   12    7  as  much  as  an  adult  man. 

A  boy  of  10  to  11    6  as  much  as  an  adult  man.  . 

A  girl  of  15  to  16 8  as  much  as  an  adult  man.  ';    f 

A  girl  of  13  to  14 7  as  much  as  an  adult  man. 

A  girl  of  10  to  12 6  as  much  as  an  adult  man. 

A  child  from  6  to  9 5  as  much  as  an  adult  man.  \ 

A  child  from  2  to  5 4  as  much  as  an  adult  man. 

A  child  under  2   3  as  much  as  an  adult  man.  \ 

These   estimates   of   Atwater  may  be    accepted,     i 
since  they  correspond  rather  closely  to  similar  ta- 
bles prepared  by  other  experts.    Their  value  lies  in     * 
the  fact  that  by  means  of  them,  the  food  consumption 
of  families  may  always  be  reduced  to  a  common  de-  /"  . 
nomination — the  requirements  of  a  man. 

The  method  of  applying  this  formula  is  stated 
very  well  by  Chapin.  Suppose,  he  says,  that  a  fam- 
ily consists  of  father,  mother,  a  girl  of  four  years, 

i*W.  O.  Atwateb,  Principles  of  Nutrition,  pp.  34-35,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  1910. 
15  Ibid.,  pp.  34-35. 


60     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

a  boy  of  three  and  a  baby  under  two.  The  father 
buys  lunch  six  days  in  a  week.  The  calculation 
therefore  runs :  ^^ 

1  man       15  meals  per  week 15.0 

1  woman  21  meals,  equivalent  for  man  to  21  x  0.8  meals  per  week.  .16.8 
1  boy  21  meals,  equivalent  for  man  to  21  x  0.4  meals  per  week . .  6.4 
1  girl  21  meals,  equivalent  for  man  to  21  x  0.4  meals  per  week .  .  8.4 
1  child      21  meals,  equivalent  for  man  to  21  X  0.3  meals  per  week.  .   6.3 

Total  number  of  meals,  on  basis  of  consumption  of  adult  man.  .54.9 

The  family  under  consideration  is,  therefore,  con- 
suming weekly  the  equivalent  of  54.9  meals  for  one 
adult  man.  Any  other  family,  or  any  number  of 
families  may,  in  this  manner,  have  their  dietaries 
reduced  to  a  common  denomination  for  the  purpose 
of  comparison. 

The  determination  of  the  amounts  of  housing, 
clothing,  fuel  and  light  necessary  to  the  maintenance 
of  a  standard,  is  a  much  more  difficult  problem  than 
that  involved  in  the  discussion  of  food,  because  there 
is  no  way  of  stating  what  amount  of  these  items  is 
requisite  for  the  running  of  the  body  on  an  efficiency 
basis.  The  best  that  can  be  said  is  that  (1)  sanita- 
tion, (2)  privacy,  (3)  decency  and  (4)  necessity  are 
the  governing  factors  to  be  determined  in  each  local- 
ity. There  is  certainly  a  minimtmi  amount  of  each 
of  these  goods  necessary  in  the  maintenance  of  a 
standard.  What  that  amount  may  be,  it  is  difficult 
to  say  generally,  though  it  may  be  readily  deter- 
minable in  each  specific  case.  Similarly,  expendi- 
tures  for   carfare,   health,   insurance   and   sundry 

"Chapin,  op.  cit.,  pp.  126-127. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  61 

items  must  be  determined  by  the  locality.  That 
some  expenditure  should  be  made  for  these  items  is 
obvious ;  its  amount  must  be  left  to  a  determination 
in  each  individual  case. 

VIII,    The  Chapin  and  the  Federal  Studies. 

From  the  discussion  in  Section  VII,  it  must  be 
apparent  that  the  available  data  indicating  the 
amount  of  economic  goods  necessary  to  the  mainte- 
^nance  of  efficiency  is  very  meager.  Indeed,  there 
"wre  but  two  modern  American  studies  which  ap- 
proach the  problem  from  the  fourth  viewpoint  (the 
amount  of  goods  necessary)  and  both  of  these 
studies  are  unfortunately  very  limited  in  scope. 

The  study  published  by  Eobert  C.  Chapin  was 
made  in  New  York  City,  during  1907-8.  The  study 
published  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
was  made  in  a  number  of  Massachusetts,  North 
Carolina  and  Georgia  mill  towns  in*  1908-9.  Both 
studies  are  very  detailed,  and  both  are  of  great 
scientific  value,  though  one  deals  with  city  and  the 
other  with  town  conditions. 

The  Chapin  study  of  standards  of  living  was  made 
on  a  schedule  very  similar  to  that  adopted  by  the 
Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners  investigators. 
In  the  case  of  the  Chapin  study,  318  families  in  New 
York  City  with  incomes  ranging  between  $600  and 
$1,100  form  the  basis  of  the  study,  while  73  addi- 
tional families  having  incomes  below  $600  and  above 
$1,100  are  referred  to  throughout  the  work,  making 
the  total  number  of  New  York  families  included 


62     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

391."  The  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners  study, 
on  the  other  hand,  covers  a  much  smaller  number  of 
cases — 21  families  in  Georgia  and  North  Carolina 
and  14  families  in  Fall  River.  Nevertheless,  the 
latter  study  is  of  the  very  greatest  value  because  it 
approaches  the  standard  of  living  problem  directly 
from  a  standpoint  of  goods,  asking  first  what 
amount  of  the  various  items  is  necessary  to  the 
maintenance  of  standards ;  second,  the  cost  of  these 
items  in  a  number  of  individual  families ;  and  third, 
their  cost  in  a  group  of  families. 

The  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners  study  dif- 
ferentiates, as  the  Chapin  study  does  not,  a  '' mini- 
mum'^  standard  of  living  from  a  ''fair"  or 
** normal"  standard  of  living.  The  minimum  stand- 
ard of  the  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners  report 
excludes  ''everything  except  the  bare  necessaries  of 
life"  (p.  133) ;  and  includes  only  expenses  for  food, 
rent,  clothing,  fuel,  light  and  sundries.  The  fair 
standard,  in  contrast  with  this  minimum  standard, 
provides  "not  only  for  physical  efficiency,  but  al- 
lows for  the  development  and  satisfaction  of  human 
attributes."  "The  minimum  standard  is  a  stand- 
ard of  living  so  low  that  one  would  expect  few 
families  to  live  on  it.  It  will  be  conceded  that  a 
standard  of  living  on  which  people  are  to  live  must 
include  many  things  that  are  not  allowed  by  the 
minimum  standard."  (P.  142.)  Thus  it  is  appar- 
ent that  the  minimum  standard,  here  contemplated, 
is  a  standard  of  the  barest  necessaries,  while  a  fair 

17  Chapin,  op.  cit.,  pp.  38-39. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  63 

standard  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the  efficiency 
standard  of  the  Chapin  study. 

Although  there  are  instances  in  which  both  studies 
— neglecting  the  statistical  warnings  regarding  the 
percentage  of  error — reduce  a  few  cases  to  percent- 
ages and  tenths,  nevertheless,  the  Chapin  study,  as 
an  able  pioneer,  and  the  Woman  and  Child  study, 
as  a  worthy  follower,  lay  the  foundation  for  a  scien- 
tific discussion  of  the  standard  of  living  problem 
as  it  appears — first  in  the  minimum  or  existence 
standard,  and  second  in  the  fair  or  efficiency  stand- 
ard. 

IX.    The  Minimum  Standard  of  Living. 

In  order  to  present  the  matter  accurately,  it  will, 
therefore,  be  necessary  to  analyze  first  the  elements 
of  a  minimum  standard  of  living,  and  second  the  ele- 
ments comprising  a  fair  or  efficiency  standard  of 
living.  Fortunately,  the  largest  item  involved  in 
the  standard  of  living — food — is  definitely  measur- 
able. The  method  of  approach  to  the  food  item 
adopted  in  the  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners 
study  is,  perhaps,  as  sound  as  any  that  could  be 
devised.  ''In  order  to  furnish  a  basis  of  compari- 
son for  the  family's  study  in  this  report,  it  seemed 
desirable  to  ascertain  the  cost  of  some  dietary  in 
actual  use,  which  offers  the  proper  amount  of 
protein  and  energy.  The  dietary  of  the  Federal 
prison,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  for  the  week  beginning 
November  29,  1908,  was  selected  for  this  purpose.'* 
(P.  134.)     The  dietary,  as  adopted  by  the  Federal 


64     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAillLY 

prison,  ''does  not  actually  meet  the  standard  re- 
quirements being  a  trifle  lower  in  protein,  but  high 
in  energy/'  The  prison  is  located  in  the  South, 
however,  where  the  study  of  living  standards  was 
being  conducted,  and  its  dietary  represented  the 
results  of  a  scientific  attempt  to  secure  an  adequate 
minimum  diet.  This  prison  diet  provided  3.186 
ounces  of  protein  per  man,  per  day,  and  a  total  fuel 
value  of  3,773.09  calories  of  food  value  per  day. 
* 'Based  on  the  equivalents  for  food  digested,  the 
standard  requirements  are  95  grams  of  protein  and 
3,200  calories,  while  the  above  dietary  study  shows 
90.51  grams  of  protein  available  and  3,773.9 
calories.'*  (P.  135.)  In  order  to  present  a  more 
accurate  picture  of  the  meaning  of  this  diet,  the 
following  menu  of  the  Federal  prison  for  the  week 
of  November  29th  to  December  5,  1908,  was  pre- 
pared (p.  135-6). 

SrrjrDAT. 
Breakfast:     Oatmeal,  milk,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 
Dinner:         Beef,  sweet  potatoes,  tomatoes,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 
Supper:         Bread,  butter,  coffee. 

Monday. 
Breakfast:    Wieners,  grits,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 
Dinner:  Pork  and  beans,  raw  onions,  bread,  water. 

Supper:  Sweet  potatoes,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 

Tuesday. 
Breakfast :     Potatoes,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 
Dinner:         Beef,  collards,  bread,  water. 
Supper:         Prunes,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 

Wednesday. 
Breakfast:     Hash,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 
Dinner:         Soup,  sweet  potatoes,  bread,  water. 
Supper:         Pie,  bread,  butter,  tea. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  ^       65 

Thuesday. 
Breakfast:     Grits,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 

Dinner:  Fresh  pork,  sweet  potatoes,  collards,  bread,  water. 

Supper:  Crackling  bread,  sirup,  coffee. 

Feiday.  i 

Breakfast:     Beef,  bread,  butter,  coffee.  ' 

Dinner:  Fish,  sweet  potatoes,  bread,  water. 

Supper:         Sauce,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 

Satueday. 
Breakfast:  Liver,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 
Dinner:  Stew,  bread,  water. 

Supper:         Graham  cookies,  coffee. 

A  study  of  this  menu  will  show  that  while  it 
makes  no  allowances  for  the  luxuries  of  life,  it  does 
provide  a  fair  variety,  and,  chemically  analyzed,  it 
is  sufficient  in  amount  to  furnish  the  requisite  food 
values.  Hence,  the  menu  is  adopted  as  being  ade- 
quate, and  at  the  same  time  as  simple  as  possible. 

In  the  matter  of  housing,  four  rooms  is  regarded 
as  the  minimum  amount  necessary  for  a  family  of 
five.  No  definite  statement  of  the  minimum  neces- 
sary housing  space  was  attempted  however.  (Pp. 
139-140.) 

The  item  of  clothing  is  susceptible  of  more  defi- 
nite analysis.  ''The  minimum  standard  for  cloth- 
ing for  cotton  mill  families  includes  only  that 
quality  and  quantity  that  is  compatible  with  phys- 
ical efficiency  and  common  decency;  that  is,  enough 
clothing  to  keep  them  warm  in  winter,  to  allow 
enough  changes  to  keep  them  clean,  and  to  prevent 
their  being  in  rags."  ^^ 

Each  member  of  the  family  is,  therefore,  placed 

18  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners,  op.  cit.,  vol.  16,  p.  137. 


66      FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

on  the  barest  minimum.  Two  pairs  of  shoes  are 
allowed  for  boys  between  ten  and  thirteen,  and 
three  pairs  for  boys  between  six  and  nine,  and  four- 
teen and  sixteen,  because  the  boys  under  thirteen 
go  bare  foot  about  six  months  of  the  year.  In  the 
remaining  six  months,  however,  boys  from  six  to 
nine  wear  their  shoes  out  much  more  quickly  than 
the  boys  from  ten  to  thirteen.  *'The  fathers  and 
the  boys  ten  years  old  and  over  have  each  been 
allowed  a  cheap  suit  of  clothes.  This  is  necessary, 
for  they  must  have  a  coat  for  protection.  This 
suit,  with  two  pairs  of  trousers,  must  be  worn  365 
days  in  the  year.  The  lint,  dust,  and  oil  of  the 
cotton  mill  is  particularly  hard  on  clothing. ' '  ^® 
**  Meager  though  the  amounts  allowed  the  different 
groups  may  seem,  they  do  satisfy  the  minimum  re- 
quirements, for,  with  a  few  minor  exceptions,  they 
represent  the  clothing  actually  worn  by  some  indi- 
vidual whose  health  had  apparently  not  been  im- 
paired by  being  underclad.  If  a  girl,  who  was 
otherwise  dressed  as  cheaply  as  possible,  had  in- 
dulged in  some  little  extravagance  like  a  Sunday 
hat,  this  was  eliminated.  Furthermore,  if  in  some 
family  the  clothing  had  been  made  by  a  dressmaker, 
the  dressmaker's  charge  was  deducted,  for  the  min- 
imum standard  requires  that  all  clothing  of  the 
women  and  children  shall  be  made  at  home. ' '  ^^ 
After  making  the  deductions  noted,  the  quantity  of 
clothing,  for  a  year,  allowed  to  different  members 
of  the  family  was  as  follows :  ^^ 

i»  Ibid.,  p.  138.  20  Idem.  21  Ibid.,  pp.  138-39. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


67 


Quantity  and  cost  of  clothing  for  a  year,  according  to  sex  and  age — 
Minimum  standard. 


Father: 

1  suit   $  8.00 

2  trousers    2.00 

5  colored  shirts   2.50 

2  suits  winter  underwear.     2.00 

2  pairs  shoes    3.00 

1  hat 50 

1  suspenders 25 


Sons,  6,  7,  8  and  9  years: 

4  trousers    $  1.00 

6  waists   1.50 

2  undershirts    50 

3  pairs   shoes    4.50 

2  caps     50 

Stockings   2.00 


Socks 


.50 


Total $18.75 


Sons,  17  years  and  over: 

1  suit   $  8.00 

2  trousers    2.00 

6  colored  shirts   2.50 

2  suits  winter  underwear.     2.00 

4  pairs  shoes    6.00 

1  hat    50 

1  suspenders 25 

Socks     1.00 


Total $10.00 

Sons,  3,  4  o"^  5  years : 

4  trousers    $1.00 

4  waists  . . 
Underwear 
1  cap 


60 

40 

25 

3  pairs   shoes    3.00 

Stockings 60 


Total 


$5.85 


Total  $22.25 

Sons,  14,  15  and  16  years: 

1  suit    $  4.00 

4  colored  shirts   2.00 

1  overalls     50 

2  suits  winter  underwear,      1.80 

3  pairs  shoes 4.50 

2  caps     50 

1  suspenders 25 


Mother : 

shawl    $1.00 

calico  waists 72 

duck  skirts    1.80 

drawers    28 

gingham  petticoats    1.00 

winter  undershirts 50 

1  fascinator     25 

2  pairs  shoes    3.00 

Stockings 70 


Total    $9.25 

Stockings   1.50        Daughters,  17  years  and  over: 


Total  $15.00 

Sons,  10,  11,  12  and  13  years: 

1  suit    $  4.00 

3  colored  shirts   1.00 

1  overalls    25 

2  suits  winter  underwear.     1.00 

2  pairs  shoes    3.00 

2  caps     50 

Stockings 60 

Total  $10.35 


1  shawl     $  1.00 

4  calico  dresses    2.80 

2  flannelette  dresses    2.50 

2  gingham  petticoats    1.00 

2  flannelette  petticoats 1.20 

2  drawers     25 

2  winter  undershirts 50 

2  gingham  aprons 50 

2  hats     2.00 

Stockings    2.00 

Shoes     7.50 

Total  $21.25 


68     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 


Daughters,  H,  15  and  16  years: 

1  wrap     $1.00 

2  gingham  waists 65 

1  cotton  skirt 80 

1  flannelette  dress 1.00 

2  calico  dresses    1.22 

2  gingham  aprons   50 

2  cotton  petticoats 72 

2  drawers    25 

2  winter  undershirts 50 

2  hats  2.00 

Shoes    7.50 

Stockings   2.00 

Total  $18.14 

Daughters,  10,  11,  12  and  IS 
years : 

1  wrap    $  1.00 

2  flannelette  dresses   1.40 

4  calico  dresses   1.68 

2  cotton  petticoats 50 

2  drawers     25 

2  winter  undershirts 50 

2  hats   2.00 

Shoes     6.00 

Stockings   1.50 

Total $14.83 


Daughters,  6,  7,  8,  and  9  years: 

1  wrap    $     .85 

3  flannelette  dresses    1.95 

3  calico   dresses    1.08 

2  cotton  petticoats 40 

2  drawers     20 

2  undershirts    25 

1  cap    50 

1  hat 50 

3  pairs   shoes    4.50 

Stockings    1.00 

Total  $11.23 

Daughters,  S,  4  and  5  years: 

4  calico  dresses    $1.20 

2  flannelette  dresses 80 

2  flannelette  petticoats  . . .       .42 
2  drawers     12 

2  undershirts    25 

1  cap     50 

Stockings    1.00 

3  pairs  shoes 1.80 

Total $6.09 

Children,   2  years  and  under: 

6  calico  dresses    $1.14 

3  flannelette  petticoats  ...        .38 

5  stockings    50 

Shoes    1.00 

Total $3.02 


In  the  case  of  clothing,  it  will  be  noted  that  the 
cost  of  each  item  is  included  in  the  table.  This 
seems  necessary,  because,  in  no  other  way  could  an 
adequate  description  be  given  of  the  items  specified. 
For  the  present,  no  notice  will  be  taken  of  the  cost. 

A  minimum  of  one  gallon  of  kerosene  per  week 
was  allowed  for  each  family.  The  presence  of 
grates  and  fireplaces  rather  than  stoves,  and  the 
financial    impossibility    of    the    families    securing 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  69 

stoves  under  the  circumstances  made  the  amount  of 
fuel  consumed  rather  large.  No  statement  of  fuel 
in  terms  of  ''cords"  or  "tons"  seemed  possible. 

Under  the  term  "sundries"  are  included  inciden- 
tal expenses  for  soap,  starch,  blueing,  washing 
powder,  brooms  and  scrubbing  brushes.  In  estab- 
lishing this  minimum  standard,  no  provision  is 
made  for  carfare,  funeral  expenses  or  insurance. 
A  reading  of  the  items  set  down  as  requisite  to  a 
minimum  standard,  certainly  justifies  the  author's 
estimate  that ' '  the  standard  excludes  everything  ex- 
cept the  bare  necessaries  of  life." 

The  same  volume  from  which  the  above  facts  are 
taken,  includes  a  study  of  the  minimum  standard 
of  living  in  a  group  of  families  in  Fall  River,  Massa- 
chusetts. The  amount  of  food  required  was  prac- 
tically the  same  in  the  North  as  in  the  South,  as  was 
the  amount  of  housing  allowed  for  each  family. 
The  number  of  items  of  clothing,  the  amount  of 
kerosene  and  the  amount  of  fuel  were  slightly 
greater.  The  same  allowance  for  sundries  was 
made  as  in  the  South.^^ 

Unfortunately,  none  of  the  other  studies  on  stand- 
ards of  living  have  attempted  to  establish  the  mini- 
mum amount  of  economic  goods  which  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  existence.  Neces- 
sarily, these  amounts  will  differ  with  the  size  of  the 
family,  the  geographic  location,  and  the  managing 
ability  of  the  mother.  Nevertheless,  the  study  un- 
der  consideration   indicates   that   the    amount   of 

22  Ibid.,  chapter  3, 


70     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

economic  goods  necessary  to  maintain  existence  in 
Georgia  and  in  Massachusetts  is  approximately 
similar  in  everything  except  clothing,  and  fuel  and 
light,  where  the  difference  is  comparatively  slight. 
It  further  establishes  a  scientific  basis  for  deter- 
mining, by  comparison,  whether  the  amount  of 
goods  consumed  by  a  given  family  will  or  will  not 
maintain  a  minimum  of  existence. 

X.    The  Fair  or  Normal  Standard. 

The  problem  of  a  normal  or  fair  standard  of 
living  is  an  essentially  different  one  from  the  prob- 
lem of  a  mere  existence  standard.  In  contrasting 
the  minimum  standard  and  the  fair  standard,  the 
author  of  the  Federal  report  states — "The  mini- 
mum standard  is  a  standard  of  living  so  low  that 
one  would  expect  few  families  to  live  on  it.  It  will 
be  conceded  that  a  standard  of  living  upon  which 
people  are  to  live  must  include  many  things  that 
are  not  allowed  by  the  minimum  standard.  It  must 
be  a  standard  that  provides  not  only  for  physical 
efl&ciency  but  allows  for  the  development  and  satis- 
faction of  human  attributes.  Just  what  is  to  be 
included  in  such  a  standard  depends  upon  the  people 
to  whom  it  is  applicable.  Manifestly,  a  standard 
that  would  be  considered  fair  by  a  laboring  man 
would  not  appear  fair  to  a  financier.  Those  pos- 
sessing different  degrees  of  wealth  have  come  to 
look  upon  different  things  as  essential  to  their  man- 
ner of  life.  "2^    In  such  a  standard,  therefore,  are 

88  Ibid.,  p.  142. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  71 

included  a  number  of  items  additional  to  minimum 
requirements.    A-laix-standard  will  maintain  the^ 
health   and   efficiency  of   a  family,   and  insure  it 

"against  physical  deterioration,  poverty  and  mis-' 

Hery.  _ 

TEe  amount  of  food  requisite  to  the  maintenance 
of  a  fair  standard  is  derived  by  the  Federal  inves- 
tigation, through  a  comparison  of  the  dietary  of  the 
Federal  prison  and  the  dietary  of  the  various  fami- 
lies studied.*'  This  comparison  shows  ''that  for 
breakfast  and  dinner  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
food  of  the  families  living  fairly  well  is  not  far 
different  from  the  prison  diet;  they  have  a  little 
more  variety,  perhaps.  For  supper,  however,  the 
prison  diet  falls  short  of  what  the  people  demand  as 
a  fair  standard  for  food.  Bread,  butter,  and  coffee 
are  not  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  meal  after  a  long 
day's  work.  It  is  clear  from  the  menus  of  those 
who  are  living  fairly  well  that  a  fair  standard  must 
allow  either  a  meat  or  a  vegetable  for  supper. 
Again,  the  prison  diet  is  a  little  low  in  the  quantity 
of  protein  it  furnishes.  The  addition  of  a  meat  or 
vegetable  for  supper  would,  perhaps,  bring  it 
nearer  the  requirements."^*  In  order  to  make  the 
matter  entirely  concrete,  the  menu  of  one  family, 
which  was  living  well  but  not  extravagantly,  and 
which  represented  a  varied  diet  and  a  complete  sup- 
ply of  nutrition,  was  adopted  as  representing  a  fair 
standard.  In  this  family,  the  average  value  of  food 
consumed  per  man,  per  week  for  the  year  was  $1.67. 

2*  Ibid.,  p.  143. 


72     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 


The  menu  for  the  week  ending  January  3,  1909, 
was :  ^^ 

Monday, 
Breakfast:    Ham,  sausage,  biscuit,  coflfee,  sugar,  butter,  sirup. 
Dinner:  Baked   sweet  potatoes,   stewed   Irish   potatoes,   coUards 

with  bacon,  corn  bread,  biscuit,  coflfee. 
Supper:         Ham,  Irish  potatoes,  biscuit,  coflfee,  butter,  sirup. 

Tuesday. 

Breakfast:     Fried  pork  (fresh),  biscuit,  butter,  sirup,  coffee,  sugar. 

Dinner:  Peas  and  bacon,  butter  beans,  sweet  potatoes,  Irish  po- 

tatoes, buttermilk,  corn  bread,  biscuit,  coflfee. 

Supper:  Beefsteak,  Irish  potatoes,  biscuit,  butter,  coflfee,  sugar, 

sirup. 

Wednesday. 
Breakfast:     Fried  pork,  ham,  butter,  cheese,  biscuit,  coffee,  sugar. 
Dinner:  Cabbage  with  bacon,  Irish  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  corn 

bread,  biscuit,  coflfee,  sugar. 
Supper:  Steak,  rice,  biscuit,  butter,  sirup,  coffee,  sugar. 

Thubsday. 
Breakfast:     Pork,  sausage,  biscuit,  butter,  sirup,  coffee,  sugar. 
Dinner:  Collards  and  bacon,  Irish  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  corn 

bread,  biscuit,  butter,  buttermilk. 
Supper:         Beefsteak,  rice,  biscuit,  coffee,  sirup,  sugar. 

Fbiday. 
Breakfast:    Pork,  rice,  biscuit,  butter,  coffee,  sugar. 
Dinner:         Peas,  bacon,   butter  beans,  sweet  potatoes,   fried  pork, 

onions,  pickles,  corn  bread,  biscuit,  coffee,  sugar. 
Supper:         Ham,  cheese,  biscuit,  butter,  coffee,  sirup,  sugar. 

Satueday. 
Breakfast:     Pork  and  rice,  biscuit,  butter,  sirup,  coffee,  sugar. 
Dinner:  Collards,    bacon,    Irish    potatoes,    sweet    potatoes,    corn 

bread,  biscuit,  coffee,  sugar. 
Supper:  Oyster   stew,   fried  pork,   biscuit,  butter,   sirup,   coffee, 

sugar. 

Sunday. 
Breakfast:     Pork,  oyster  stew,  biscuit,  butter,  coffee,  sugar. 
Dinner :         Beans,  Irish  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  pork,  biscuit,  corn 

bread,  coffee,  sugar. 
Supper:         Ham,  biscuit,  butter,  sirup,  coffee,   sugar. 

38  Ibid.,  pp.  40-41. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  73 

An  itemized  statement  of  the  cost  of  the  food  en- 
tering into  this  menu  follows  the  menu.^^ 

No  similar  statement  of  the  amount  of  food  con- 
stituting a  fair  diet  is  given  by  Chapin,  though  he 
does  estimate  the  cost  of  a  fair  diet  at  22  cents  per 
man,  per  day.  ($1.54  per  man,  per  week.)  This 
amount,  Dr.  Chapin  states  in  a  footnote,  is  below 
Atwater's  estimate— 23  cents  to  25  cents  per  man 
per  day — made  in  1896  and  1897.^^ 

On  the  whole,  the  specimen  menu  adopted  as  fair 
by  the  Federal  investigation  does  not  seem  to  con- 
tain an  excessive  variety,  and  if  account  is  taken  of 
the  number  of  "left-overs"  consumed  at  subsequent 
meals,  the  diet  becomes  really  much  simpler  than  it 
appears  on  its  face.  The  newer  studies  would 
question  the  amount  of  meat  consumed  as  excessive. 
Yet,  while  this  may  be  scientifically  true,  it  remains 
a  fact  that  popular  tradition  in  the  United  States 
still  over-emphasizes  meat  consumption. 

In  the  matter  of  housing,  a  fair  standard  demands 
that  the  size  of  the  house  shall  vary  with  the  size 
of  the  family  and  the  age  of  its  members.  Chapin 
estimates  that  the  minimum  amount  of  housing,  con- 
sistent with  the  maintenance  of  a  normal  standard, 
is  one  room  to  every  one  and  a  half  persons.^^ 
This  standard  is  adopted  by  Dr.  Chapin  because, 
''since  none  of  the  families  include  less  than  four 
persons,  and  the  greater  number  consists  of  five  or 
six,  an  allowance  of  four  rooms  would  not  seem 

26  Ibid.,  p.  41.  28  Ibid.,  p.  18, 

2T  Chapin,  op.  cit.,  pp.  126-7. 


74     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

to  exceed,  as  a  rule,  the  demands  of  decency. ' '  ^^ 
Here  no  effort  is  made  to  estimate  the  necessary 
amount  of  room  space  on  a  basis  of  the  number  of 
cubic  feet  of  air  required  by  each  member  of  the 
family. 

A  fair  standard  of  clothing  may  be  readily  esti- 
mated. ''It  must  allow  a  sufficient  amount  so  that 
there  can  be  some  expression  of  individual  taste. 
It  must  allow  for,  not  only  a  change  of  clothing  for 
the  sake  of  cleanliness,  but  also  for  Sundays  and 
other  holidays.  In  ascertaining  the  quantity  of 
clothing  necessary  for  the  different  individuals,  the 
clothing  lists  of  those  families  and  individuals,  who 
appeared  to  be  fairly  well  dressed,  were  carefully 
considered.^' 2^  According  to  this  fair  standard, 
the  amount  of  clothing  allowed  per  year  for  each 
member  of  the  family  in  the  Federal  investigation 
was :  ^^ 

Quantity  and  cost  of  clothing  for  a  year,  according  to  sex  and  age- 
Fair  standard. 

Father:  3  handkerchiefs    $     .30 

1  suit     $14.00  Socks     2.50 

2  trousers    3.00  Barbering    1.20 

2  overalls     1.50 

1  light  shirt   1.00  Total    $38.50 

4  colored    shirts  ' 2.00 

2  suits    underwear    2.00  ^ons,  11  years  and  over: 

2  pairs  shoes 4.00      1  suit    $14.00 

1  pair  shoes    3.00      2  trousers    3.00 

2  hats     3.00      2  overalls     1.50 

4  collars     50      2  light    shirts     2.00 

1  necktie    25      4  colored  shirts    2.00 

1  suspenders 25      2  suits    underwear    2.00 

29  Idem. 

80  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners,  op.  cit.,  p.  144. 

81  Ibid.,  pp.  145-146. 


THE  STANDAED  OF  LIVING 


75 


3  pairs  shoes    $  6.00 

1  pair  shoes    3.00 

2  hats     3.00 

6  collars    75 

2  neckties    50 

1  suspenders     25 

3  handkerchiefs    30 

Socks    2.50 

Barbering     1.20 

Total     $42.00 

Sons,  14,  15  and  16  years: 

2  suits     $12.00 

2  trousers    2.00 

2  light  shirts   2.00 

4  colored  shirts   2.00 

2  overalls     1.00 

2  winter   underwear    2.00 

3  pairs   shoes    6.00 

2  hats     2.00 

1  cap    25 

6  collars    50 

2  neckties     50 

1  suspenders     25 

3  handkerchiefs    30 

Stockings     3.00 

Barbering    1.20 

Total     $35.00 

Sons,  10,  11,  12  and  13  years: 
2  suits    $  7.00 

4  trousers    2.00 

6  shirts    1.80 

2  collars     20 

2  winter  underwear 1.00 

4  pairs  shoes    6.00 

2  caps     50 

1  hat     50 

1  necktie    25 

1  suspenders     25 

Stockings     2.00 

Total    $21.50 

Sons,  6,  7,  8  and  9  years: 

1  suit    $  3.50 

4  trousers    1.00 


6  waists    $  1.50 

2  undershirts    50 

3  pairs   shoes    4.50 

Stockings     2.00 

2  caps     50 

1  hat    50 

1  necktie    25 

Total    $14.25 

Sons,  S,  4  <^nd  5  years: 

1  coat   $1.00 

4  trousers    1.00 

6  waists   1.50 

2  undershirts    50 

3  pairs   shoes    3.00 

2  caps     50 

1  hat     25 

1  necktie    25 

Stockings     1.00 

Total    $9.00 

Mother: 

1  suit    $  5.75 

2  percale  waists 60 

1  flannelette   waist 50 

2  white  waists   2.00 

2  duck  skirts    2.00 

2  calico  dresses    1.50 

2  dressing   sacks 60 

2  gingham  aprons 50 

2  petticoats   1.60 

2  undershirts    50 

1  felt  hat 2.00 

1  straw  hat 2.00 

Stockings    2.00 

2  pairs   shoes    4.00 

4  handkerchiefs    20 

I  lisle  gloves 50 

Total   $26.25 

Daughters,  17  years  and  over: 

1  suit   $15.00 

4  white  waists   4.00 

2  cotton  skirts   2.00 

6  calico  dresses 4.00 

2  lawn  dresses    4.00 

4  aprons 1.00 


76     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 


1  sateen  petticoat   $  1.00 

3  white  petticoats  2.25 

4  drawers 50 

1  corset    75 

2  corset  covers 50 

2  winter  undershirts 50 

1  felt  hat 3.75 

1  straw  hat 3.00 

Stockings    2.00 

3  pairs  shoes 9.00 

1  gloves    l.OO 

Ribbons,  belts,  etc 2.00 

Handkerchiefs   1.00 

Total $57.25 

Daughters,  14,  15,  and  16  years: 

1  suit    $  8.00 

2  white  waists   2.00 

2  gingham  waists 65 

1  cotton  skirt 80 

1  flannelette  dress 1.30 

6  calico  dresses 3.65 

1  lawn  dress  1.15 

2  aprons  50 

2  petticoats 75 

4  drawers    50 

2  undershirts    50 

1  felt  hat 2.00 

1  straw  hat 2.00 

Stockings 2.00 

Shoes   9.00 

Ribbons,  belts,   etc 1.20 

Handkerchiefs     50 

Total $36.50 

Daughters,  10,  11,  12  and  13 
years : 

1  coat  $  3.00 

5  gingham  dresses 3.10 

2  lawn  dresses   2.10 

1  woolen  dress   2.75 

4  petticoats   1.85 

4  drawers    30 

2  winter  underwear 90 

1  felt  hat 1.60 


1  straw  hat $  1.00 

Stockings    2.00 

4  pairs  shoes 6.00 

Ribbons,  etc 50 

Total   $25.00 

Daughters,  6,  7,  8  and  9  years: 

1  coat   $  3.00 

6  calico  dresses    2.10 

1  flannelette  dress 50 

2  cotton  petticoats 55 

2  flannel  petticoats   1.00 

3  drawers     35 

2  winter   undershirts 50 

1  felt  hat    50 

1   straw  hat 50 

Stockings    1.50 

3  pairs  shoes 4.50 

Ribbons,  etc 50 

Total $15.50 

Daughters,  S,  ^  and  5  years: 
6  calico  dresses $  2.75 

1  flannelette  dress 40 

3  cotton  petticoats 60 

2  flannelette  petticoats  ...        .60 

4  drawers     40 

2  undershirts    50 

Stockings   1.00 

Shoes 3.00 

1  felt  hat 50 

1  straw  hat 50 

Total  $10.25 

Children  2  years  and  under: 

5  calico  dresses $1.20 

2  flannelette  dresses 65 

2  flannelette  petticoats  ...        .90 

3  white  petticoats 50 

1  baby  cap 75 

Stockings 50 

Shoes    1.50 

Total $6.00 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  77 

The  amounts  of  clotliing  allowed  for  the  boys  and 
girls  over  seventeen  years  of  age — those  in  the 
*' dressing  stage,"  is  considerably  in  excess  of  the 
amounts  allowed  for  any  other  members  of  the  fam- 
ily. A  legitimate  objection  might  be  urged  against 
the  inclusion  of  these  extras  in  a  fair  standard. 
The  allowance  made  for  the  parents  and  for  the 
younger  children  does  not,  however,  seem  at  all  ex- 
cessive, although  it  is  considerably  in  excess  of 
Chapin's  estimate  of  the  amount  of  clothing  neces- 
sary for  a  fair  standard,  and  an  examination  of  the 
Chapin  list  of  necessary  clothing,  together  with  the 
context  in  which  the  list  is  discussed,  leads  inev- 
itably to  the  conclusion  that  the  concept  of  a  cloth- 
ing standard  held  by  Chapin  is  very  similar  to  the 
minimum  standard  of  the  Federal  investigation. 
This  clothing  estimate  is,  perhaps,  the  weakest  point 
in  the  Chapin  study,  since  the  viewpoint  is  distinctly 
of  a  minimum  rather  than  of  a  fair  standard.  The 
items  presented  in  the  Chapin  study  are :  ^^ 

For  the  man.  6  pairs  hose   $     .60 

2  hats  or  caps $2.00     2  pairs  shoes 4.00 

1  overcoat  33    5.00     Repair  of  shoes    1.50 

1  guit    10.00      Gloves  or  mittens 50 

1  pair  pantaloons 2.00 

2  pairs  overalls    1.50                     Total $33.00 

8  working  shirts   1.00 

2  white  shirts 1.00  For  each  hoy. 

6  collars 60  2  hats  $  0.50 

4  ties    50  1  overcoat    2.50 

4  handkerchiefs    30  1  suit    2.50 

Summer  underwear   1.00  1  pair  trousers 50 

Winter  underwear 1.50  2  waists 50 

32  Chapin,  op.  cit.,  p.  166. 

33  Costs  $10  to  $15,  lasts  2  or  3  years. 


78     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 


Summer  underwear  $     .50 

Winter  imderwear 1.00 

6  pairs  stockings 50 

2  pairs   shoes    2.00 

Repair  of  shoes 1.25 

Mittens 25 


Repair  of  shoes $  1.25 

Sundries  1.00 


Total $12.00 


For  washing. 
Soap,  etc.   (15  cts.  a  week) 
Laundry     (  5  cts.  a  week ) 


$  7.50 
2.50 


Total $10.00 


For  the  woman. 

1  hat 

1  cloak  34  

2  dresses  of  wash  goods. 
1  woolen  dress   

3  waists     

1  petticoat 

Linen,  etc 

Summer  underwear 

Winter  underwear   

6  handkerchiefs    

Gloves  or  mittens 

3  aprons  

6  pairs  stockings 

2  pairs  shoes    


.$  1.50 
.  2.50 
.  2.50 
.  5.00 
.      1.50 

.50 
.       .70 

.50 
.      1.00 

.45 
.  .  .50 
.        .50 

.60 
.      3.00 


Total $23.00 

For  the  girl. 

hats    $  1.25 

cloak     2.00 

dresses  of  wash  goods..     2.00 

woolen  dress   1 .50 

waists   1.00 

petticoats 50 

Summer  underwear 50 

Winter  underwear   1.00 

Ribbons,  etc 50 

6  handkerchiefs    25 

Gloves  or  mittens 25 

6  pairs    stockings 50 

2  pairs  shoes    2.50 

Repair  of  shoes 1.25 

Total  $15.00 

Summary. 

For  the  man $  33.00 

For  the  woman    23.00 

For  2  boys,  each,  $12.00. .     24.00 

For  1  girl 15.00 

For  washing   10.00 

Total  $105.00 


Chapin  acknowledges  that  this  standard  is  a  min- 
imum. ''Such  an  estimate,"  he  writes,  "presup- 
poses, on  the  part  of  the  mother,  a  high  grade  of 
efficiency  in  mending  and  remaking.  It  makes  a 
meager  allowance  for  outside  garments,  and  one 
quite  insufficient  for  men  in  certain  occupations. 
It  seems  within  bounds  to  assume  that  less  than  $100 
will  not  suffice  to  provide  decent  clothing  for  a  nor- 
mal family  of  five."  It  should  be  further  remarked 
that  the  boys  and  girls  are  under  fourteen  years. 


8*  Costs  $5,  lasts  2  years. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  79 

Even  then  the  allowance  for  them  seems  pitifully 
small. 

A  fair  allowance  of  clothing  must  include  more 
than  the  bare  necessaries  which  climate  and  de- 
cency demand.  In  how  far  this  minimum  may  be 
supplemented  to  meet  the  styles,  and  to  dress  for 
holidays,  is  an  open  question.  A  careful  perusal 
of  the  Chapin  estimate  makes  its  insufficiency  more 
apparent.  The  estimate  of  the  Federal  investiga- 
tion, while  perhaps  excessive  for  boys  and  girls 
over  seventeen,  seems,  on  the  whole,  to  be  an  excel- 
lent statement  of  a  fair  clothing  standard. 

The  minimum  amount  allowed  for  fuel  and  light 
is  the  same  as  that  adopted  in  the  case  of  the  min- 
imum standard;  while  an  allowance  is  made  under 
the  fair  standard  for  carfare  in  cities,  and  for  health 
and  insurance  in  both  city  and  country  districts. 
The  Federal  report  allows  a  small  doctor's  bill,  and 
*'ten  cents  a  week  for  each  of  the  parents  and  five 
cents  a  week  for  each  of  the  children,  regardless  of 
age,"  for  insurance.  Both  the  Chapin  and  Federal 
investigations  allow  a  small  amount  for  amusement, 
recreation,  papers  and  the  like,  under  a  fair  stand- 
ard. 

"vIThe  fair  or  efficiency  standard  thus  affords  to  a  r\ 
family,  what  might  be  described  as  the  decencies  of  . 
modern  American  life.    Practically  no  luxuries  are 
alfowedj  but  the  minimum  comforts  are  provided 
and  all  of  the  strict  necessaries  of  life  are  made 
possible. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  throughout  the  previ- 


80     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

ous  statements  to  set  down,  in  each  case,  the  amount 
of  goods  required  to  maintain  a  minimum  and  fair 
standard  of  living.  Considerable  difficulty  was 
necessarily  encountered  in  many  cases  because  of* 
the  impossibility  of  stating  such  items  as  doctor 
services  and  the  like  in  any  other  than  money  terms. 
Nevertheless,  the  amount  of  economic  goods  requi- 
site to  maintain  a  standard  of  living  is  essentially 
a  different  matter  from  the  cost  of  the  standard, 
because  the  amount  of  goods  entering  into  a  stand- 
ard is  practically  constant  while  the  cost  of  the  in- 
dividual item  may  vary  greatly  from  place  to  place. 

XI.    The  Value  of  the  "Goods'*  Standard. 

The  value  of  considering  the  standard  of  living 
as  a  standard  of  goods  is  now  apparent.  In  the 
first  place,  the  basic  factor  in  a  standard  of  living, 
is  the  "goods"  consumed.  The  matter  of  cost  is 
a  subsidiary  consideration.  The  standard  is  always 
a  standard  of  goods.  Cost  relates  the  income  tC 
the  expenditure.  A  study  of  income  and  expendi- 
ture is  necessarily  based  on  cost,  but  a  study  of 
standards  begins  with  the  goods  themselves.  In  tlie 
second  place,  no  other  method  will  furnisTi  a  basis 
for  adequate  comparison  between  localities. 

The  material  presented  in  this  chapter  answers 
the  first  question  of  this  inquiry — "What  amount 
of  economic  goods  is  necessary  to  maintain  a  stand- 
ard of  living  in  the  United  States!"  This  answer 
paves  the  way  for  an  answer  to  the  second  question 
— "How  much  will  these  goods  cost?"    Since  the 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING  81 

more  important  items  in  a  standard — food,  housing, 
and  clothing — are  definitely  measurable  in  terms  of 
the  quantity  of  each  needed  to  maintain  a  standard, 
any  community  may  ascertain,  by  a  little  investiga- 
tion of  prices,  the  exact  cost,  in  that  community,  of 
a  minimum  and  of  a  fair  standard  of  living. 


CHAPTEE  III 

The  Cost  of  a  Standard  op  Living 

I.    The  Problem  of  Costs. 

The  statement  of  the  amount  of  goods  necessary 
to  the  maintenance  of  a  given  standard  is  of  very 
general  application.  With  slight  modifications,  the 
Fall  Eiver  schedule  may  be  made  applicable  to  most 
New  England  mill  towns,  while  the  Georgia  schedule 
of  necessary  goods  will  apply,  generally,  to  mill 
towns  in  the  South.  However,  in  various  localities 
there  is  a  variation  in  the  cost  of  food,  rent,  cloth- 
ing, coal,  oil  and  sundries.  The  problem  of  cost 
is,  therefore,  much  more  local  than  that  of  the 
amount  of  goods,  and  must  be,  to  a  greater  extent, 
made  the  subject  of  local  treatment.  Some  general 
statement  of  cost  is  nevertheless  possible. 

II.    The  Cost  of  the  Minimum  Standard. 

It  is  possible  to  state  the  cost  of  a  minimum 
standard  of  living  either  in  terms  of  the  needs  of 
an  individual  man,  or  of  an  entire  family.  In  the 
Federal  investigation,  both  of  these  methods  are 
adopted.  The  items  of  expenditure  are  first  divided 
into  two  classes,  those  items  which  vary  with  the 

82 


THE  COST  OF  A  STANDAED  OF  LIVING      83 

number  of  persons  in  the  family,  and  those  items 
wliich  do  not  vary  with  the  number  of  persons  in  the 
family.  In  North  Carolina  and  Georgia,  the  cost 
of  food  and  clothing  (the  items  varying  with  the 
size  of  the  family  for  different  individuals)  is  as 
follows :  * 

Cost  of  food  and  clothing  for  a  year,  according  to  sex  and  age — 
Minimum  standard. 
Sex  and  age.  Food.         Clothing. 

Father     $74.88  $18.75 

Mother    59.90  9.25 

Males : 

17  years  and  over 74.88  22.25 

15  and  16  years   67.40  15.05 

14  years   59.90  15.05 

13  years   59.90  10.35 

12  years    52.42  10.35 

10  and  11  years   44.92  10.35 

6  to  9  years    37.44  10.00 

3  to  5  years  29.97  5.85 

Females : 

17  years   and   over    59.90  21.25 

15  and    16   years    59.90  18.14 

14  years   52.42  18.14 

13  years    52.42  14.83 

10,  11  and  12  years   ♦ 44.92  14.83 

6  to  9  years   47.44  11.25 

3  to  5  ye? 73   29.97  6.09 

Children : 

2  years     29.97  3.02 

Under  2  years  22.46  3.02 

This  represents  in  each  case  the  minimum  amount 
necessary  to  maintain  existence. 

The  cost  in  a  minimum  standard  of  those  items 
which  do  not  vary  with  the  size  of  the  family  would 
be:  2 

1  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners,  op.  cit.,  p.  141. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  141. 


84     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

Rent     $  44.81 

Fuel    41.36 

Lights    7.80 

Sundries,  etc 8.50 

Total    $102.47 

It  is,  therefore,  possible  by  taking  a  given  family 
to  estimate  the  cost  of  the  minimum  standard  to 
that  family.  For  example,  in  a  family  of  a  man, 
wife  and  three  children,  a  girl  of  ten,  a  boy  of  six 
and  a  boy  of  four,  the  cost  for  food  and  clothing 
would  be :  ^ 

Member  of  family.                 Food.  Clothing.  Total. 

Father    $74.88  $18.75  $93.63 

Mother   59.90  9.25  69.15 

Girl,   10  years    44.92  14.83  59.75 

Boy,  6  years  37.44  10.00  47.44 

Boy,  4  years 29.97  5.85  35.82 

Total    $247.11  $58.68  $305.79 

Adding  to  this  total  $305.79,  the  cost  for  rent,  fuel, 
light  and  sundries  ($102.47),  it  appears  that  a  family 
such  as  the  one  under  consideration  would  require 
$408.26  annually  to  maintain  a  minimumi  standard 
in  North  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

This  standard  is  by  no  means  a  liberal  one,  and 
the  probabilities  of  maintaining  a  living  upon  it  are 
most  precarious.  Furthermore,  "there  can  be  no 
amusements  or  recreations  that  involve  any  ex- 
pense. No  tobacco  can  be  used.  No  newspapers 
can  be  purchased.  The  children  can  not  go  to 
school,  because  there  will  be  no  money  to  buy  their 
books.    Household  articles  that  are  worn  out  or 

8  Idem. 


THE  COST  OF  A  STANDARD  OF  LIVING     85 

destroyed  can  not  be  replaced.  The  above  sum  pro- 
vides for  neither  birth  nor  death  nor  any  illness 
that  demands  a  doctor  ^s  attention  or  calls  for  medi- 
cine. Even  though  all  these  things  are  eliminated, 
if  the  family  is  not  to  suffer,  the  mother  must  be  a 
woman  of  rare  ability.  She  must  know  how  to 
make  her  own  and  her  children's  clothing;  she  must 
be  physically  able  to  do  all  of  the  household  work, 
including  the  washing.  And  she  must  know  enough 
to  purchase  with  her  allowance  food  that  has  the 
proper  nutritive  value. ' '  *  Apparently,  if  a  woman 
is  to  support  a  family  on  this  income,  she  must  have 
a  skill  and  power  of  management  which  would  bring 
her  from  $12  to  $15  a  week  if  she  were  at  work  in  an 
industrial  establishment.  Needless  to  say,  most 
women  have  no  such  ability,  particularly  in  the  lower 
income  groups.  Since  the  children  there  are  forced 
to  leave  school  early,  and  help  to  support  the  family, 
they  miss  any  opportunity  of  securing  training 
through  the  schools.  Further,  since  their  mothers 
were,  in  all  probability,  brought  up  in  a  similar  way, 
there  is  nothing  in  the  home  environment  stimulat- 
ing to  thrift  or  managerial  ability.  Among  the 
families  of  lowest  income,  where  the  necessity  for 
thrift  and  careful  management  ar^  the  greatest,  the 
opportunities  that  children  have  to  learn  these 
things  are  least.  Hence  the  assumption  of  the  re- 
markable qualities  which  the  authors  of  the  govern- 
ment study  demand  in  a  woman  who  is  to  pilot  a 
Georgia  family  through  366  days  on  $408.26  is  un- 

4  Ibid.,  p.  142. 


86     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

justifiable  in  the  extreme.  The  exceptional  woman 
may  possess  them ;  but  the  average  woman  does  not. 
Hence  the  estimate  is  decidedly  low. 

The  cost  of  a  minimum  standard  in  Fall  Eiver, 
Massachusetts,  varies  somewhat  from  the  cost  for 
the  Southern  States.  The  food  and  clothing  neces- 
sary for  'each  individual  appear  in  the  following 
table :« 


Cost  of  food  and  clothing  for  a  year,  according  to  sex  and  age — 
Minimum  standard. 

Sex  and  age.  Food.  Clothing. 

Father    $83.20  $23.80 

Mother    66.56  15.45 

Males: 

17  years  and  over   83.20  27.80 

15  and  16  years  74.88  20.75 

14  years   66.56  20.75 

13  years   66.56  16.75 

12  years    58.24  16.75 

10  and  11  years  50.52  16.75 

6  to  9  years   41.60  13.25 

3  to  5  years  33.28  9.00 

Females : 

17  years  and  over  66.56  23.85 

15  and  16  years   66.56  20.60 

14  years  58.24  20.60 

13  years    58.24  18.50 

10   to    12   years    50.52  18.50 

6  to  9  years   41.60  16.25 

3  to  5  years  33.28  9.50 

Children : 

2  years   33.28  3.70 

Under  2  years 24.96  3.70 

The  cost  of  those  items  which  do  not  vary  with  the  size 
of  the  family  is — ^ 

« Ibid.,  p.  237. 
^Idem. 


THE  COST  OF  A  STANDAKD  OF  LIVING     87 

Eent   $  78.00 

Fuel    36.50 

Light    6.25 

Sundries    8.50 

Total $129.25 

A  computation  similar  to  that  made  for  the 
Southern  States  shows  the  amount  necessary  to 
maintain  a  minimum  standard  of  living  in  a  normal 
familyJ 

Food.  Clothing.  Total. 

Father    $83.20  $23.80  $107.00 

Mother    66.56  15.45  82.01 

Girl,  10  years 50.52  18.50  69.02 

Boy,  6  years 41.60  13.25  54.85 

Boy,  4  years 33.28  9.00  42.28 

Total    $275.16  $80.00  $355.16 

The  total  cost  of  maintaining  a  minimum  stand- 
ard of  living  in  Fall  Eiver  ($484.41)  is  slightly  in  ex- 
cess of  that  required  in  the  Southern  States,  largely 
because  of  the  increased  amount  apportioned  for 
food  and  rent.  Since  the  housewife  in  Fall  Eiver 
is  to  be  the  same  type  of  super-woman  as  tliat.de- 
mahded  in  the  Georgia  estimate,  the  same  objection 
holds  as  in  that  case. 

The  Chapin  study  does  not  make  any  detailed 
statement  of  the  cost  of  a  minimum  standard  of  sub- 
sistence, but  the  conclusions  relative  to  incomes  be- 
tween $600  and  $700  may  be  compared  with  the  con- 
clusions in  the  Federal  study,  since  they  refer  to  an 
essentially  similar  economic  status.  Dr.  Chapin 
writes — '*It  seems  safe  to  conclude  from  all  the 
data  that  we  have  been  considering,  that  an  in- 

1 1bid.,  p.  238. 


88     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

come  under  $800  is  not  enough  to  permit  the  main- 
tenance of  a  normal  standard.  A  survey  of  the  de- 
tail of  expenditure  for  each  item  in  the  budget  shows 
some  manifest  deficiency  for  almost  every  family  in 
the  $600  and  $700  groups.  The  housing  average 
shows  scarcely  more  than  three  rooms  for  five  per- 
sons. Three-fifths  of  the  families  have  less  than 
four  rooms  and  more  than  one  and  one-third  per- 
sons to  a  room.  Fuel  is  gathered  on  the  street  by 
half  of  the  $600  families  and  by  more  than  one-third 
of  the  $700  families.  One-third  of  the  $600  families 
are  not  able  to  afford  gas.  One-third  of  the  $600 
families  are  within  the  22-cent  minimum  limit  for 
food,  and  30  per  cent,  of  the  $700  families  spend  22 
cents  or  under.  In  the  same  way  the  average  ex- 
penditure for  clothing  in  neither  of  these  groups 
reached  $100,  and  30  per  cent,  of  the  families  are  in 
receipt  of  gifts  to  e]je  out  the  supplies  of  clothing. 
In  sickness  the  dispensary  is  the  main  dependence 
of  these  families,  each  of  whom  spends  less  than  $10 
annually  in  the  average,  on  account  of  health,  and 
only  1  family  in  10  in  the  $600  group,  and  1  in  6 
of  the  $700  group,  spends  anything  for  the  care  of 
the  teeth.  The  returns  as  to  the  furnishing  of  the 
houses  show  that  in  the  $600  and  $700  groups  ade- 
quate furnishing  is  scarcely  attained  as  the  rule,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  see  how  it  could  be  kept  up  with  the 
average  expenditure  reported  for  this  purpose."® 
In  short,  the  families  living  in  New  York  City  on 

8  K.  C.  Chapin,  The  Standard  of  Living  Among  Workingmen's 
Families  in  Kew  York  City,  p.  245,  Charities  Publication  Committee, 
New  York,  1909. 


THE  COST  OF  A  STANDARD  OF  LIVING      89 

incomes  between  $600  and  $700  may  afford  none  of 
the  incidental  expenses,  and  are  so  reduced  on  ex- 
penses for  necessaries  that  a  decent  standard  of  liv- 
ing cannot  be  maintained. 

The  Federal  minimum  makes  no  allowance  for 
sickness,  saving,  insurance,  amusement  or  recrea- 
tion, and  the  Chapin  study  allows  little  or  nothing 
for  these  various  purposes.  Nevertheless,  it  ap- 
pears that  in  a  large  city  where  rents  are  high  (the 
families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $700  paid 
an  average  rent  of  $153.59)  an  income  less  than  $600 
will  not  provide  even  the  necessities  of  existence. 
In  districts,  on  the  other  hand,  where  expenses  for 
rent  are  low  ($44.81  in  the  Southern  States  and  $78 
in  Massachusetts)  an  income  between  $400  and  $500 
will  provide  a  family  with  the  barest  necessa- 
ries. 

While  these  facts  will  not  justify  a  general  state- 
ment, it  seems  obvious  that,  for  the  localities  under 
consideration,  the  sums  named  are  scarcely  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  family  dissolution.  That  families 
live  on  such  incomes  is  beyond  question.  That  un- 
derfeeding, congestion,  insanitation,  and  physical 
decadence  are  their  products  needs  no  further  as- 
sertion. 

777.    The  Cost  of  a  Fair  Standard  of  Living. 

The  determination  of  the  cost  of  a  fair  standard 
of  living  is  similar  to  that  of  a  minimum  standard. 
However,  the  number  of  items  allowed  for  a  fair 
standard  of  living  is  somewhat  greater,  and  hence 


90     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

the  cost  of  the  standard  exceeds,  by  a  considerable 
amount,  the  cost  of  the  minunum  standard. 

In  the  South,  the  allowance  in  a  fair  standard,  for 
those  items  which  vary  with  the  individual  is  as  fol- 
lows :  ® 

Cost  of  maintenance  for  a  year  for  individiials  of  various  ages  for 

those  things  that  vary  loith  the  size  of  the  family — 

Fair  standard. 


■  eS 

bb 

<o 

1 

. 

g 

W. 

1 

.S 

o 
O 

o  a 

a 

u 

s 

la 

o 

O 

H 

ii 

3 

Father     .... 

$86.84  $38.S0  $3.28  iR.'>.20  $7.80  $5.20 

$146.82 

Mother     . . . 

69.47 

26.25 

3.28 

5.20 

7.80     6.20 

.... 

117.20 

Males : 

17    years 

and 

over 

86.84 

42.00 

3.28 

2.60 

7.80    . 

.... 

142.52 

16  years 

78.16 

35.00 

3.28 

2.60 

7.80    . 

126.84 

15  years 

78.16 

35.00 

3.28 

2.60 

119.04 

14  years 

69.47 

35.00 

3.28 

2.60 

110.35 

13  years 

69.47 

21.50 

3.28 

2.60 

96.85 

12  years 

60.79 

21.50 

3.28 

2.60 

88.17 

10  and  11 

yrs. 

52.10 

21.50 

3.28 

2.60 



$2.66 

81.48 

6    to   9   years. 

43.42 

14.25 

3.28 

2.60 

2.00 

65.55 

3   to   5   years. 

34.74 

9.00 

3.28 

2.60 



.... 

49.62 

Females : 

17    years 

and 

over 

69.47 

57.25 

3.28 

2.60 

7.80    . 

.... 

140.40 

16  years 

69.47 

35.50 

3.28 

2.60 

7.80    . 

118.65 

15  years 

69.47 

35.50 

3.28 

2.60 

•  • .  •     • 

110.85 

14  years 

60.79 

35.50 

3.28 

2.60 

....     . 

102.17 

13  years 

.60.79 

25.00 

3.28 

2.60 



91.67 

12  years 

52.10 

25.00 

3.28 

2.60 

82.98 

10  and  11 

yrs. 

52.10 

25.00 

3.28 

2.60 

$2.66 

84.98 

6   to   9   years. 

43.42 

15.50 

3.28 

2.60 

2.00 

66.80 

3    to   5   years. 

34.74 

10.25 

3.28 

2.60 



50.87 

Children : 

2    years    . 

34.74 

6.00 

3.28 

2.60 

46.62 

Under  2  years 

26.05 

6.00 

3.28 

2.60 



37.93 

» Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners,  op.  cit.,  p.  150. 


THE  COST  OF  A  STANDARD  OF  LIVING     91 

The  items  which  do  not  vary  with  the  individual  cost  as 
follows :  ^^ 

Cost  of  all  articles — Fair  standard.  ppj.  Year 

Rent    $  44.81 

Fuel    41.36 

Light    7.80 

Sundries    13.00 

Household  furnishings   26.00 

Newspapers     1.00 

Church,  charity   2.60 

Total    $136.57 

The  normal  family  of  five  would,  therefore,  require  an 
income  for  the, —  ^^ 

Father    $146.82 

Mother   117.20 

Girl,  10  years  old  84.98 

Boy,  6  years  old   65.55 

Boy,  4  years  old 49.62 

Total    $464.17 

Adding  to  this  sum,  the  total  of  the  items  which 
do  not  vary  with  the  size  of  the  family  ($136.57), 
it  appears  that  the  family  income  must  be  $600.74 
a  year,  if  a  fair  standard  is  to  be  maintained.  This 
amount  of  income  "will  enable  him  to  furnish  them 
good  nourishing  food  and  sufficient  plain  clothing. 
He  can  send  his  children  to  school.  Unless  a  pro- 
longed or  serious  illness  befall  the  family,  he  can  pay 
for  medical  attention.  If  death  should  occur,  insur- 
ance will  meet  the  expense.  He  can  provide  some 
simple  recreation  for  his  family,  the  cost  not  to  be 
over  $15.60  for  the  year."  ^^ 

The  same  relation  exists  between  the  cost  of  maih- 

10  Ibid.,  p.  152.  11  Idem.  12  Ibid.,  pp.  152-153. 


92     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

taming  a  fair  standard  in  the  South  and  in  Massa- 
chusetts as  that  established  for  the  minimum  stand- 
ard. .  The  items  of  family  expenditure  which  vary 
with  the  individual  would  cost  in  Fall  River 


13 


Cost  of  maintenance  for  a  year  for  individuals  of  various  ages  for 

those  things  that  vary  with  the  size  of  the  family — 

Fair  standard. 


fe 


§> 


o 


pa       hH 


pi 
S 

<  s 


and 


Father    . . . 
Mother     . . 

Males : 
17    years 
over 

16  years 

15  years 

14  years 

13  years 

12  years  .... 
10  and  11  yrs, 
6  to  9  years. 
3  to  5  years. 

Females : 

17  years 
over 

16  years 

15  years 

14  years 

13  years  .... 
10  to  12  years 
6  to  9  years. 
3   to   5   years. 

Children : 

2  years  37.85 

Under   2  years  28.39 


.$94.64  $45.75  $2.33  $5.20  $7.80  $5.20  $5.20  $166.12 
,   75.71     33.75     2.33     5.20     7j80    5.20     129.99 


94.64 

50.50 

2.33 

86.17 

42.45 

2.33 

86.17 

42.45 

2.33 

75.71 

42.45 

2.33 

75.71 

30.55 

2.33 

66.24 

30.55 

2.33 

56.78 

30.55 

2.33 

47.32 

17.45 

2.33 

37.85 

14.50 

2.33 

and 


75.71 
75.71 
75.71 
66.24 
66.24 
56.78 
47.32 
37.85 


68.80 
37.00 
37.00 
37.00 
25.35 
25.35 
16.85 
13.20 


2.33 
2.33 
2.33 
2.33 
2.33 
2.33 
2.33 
2.33 


2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 


2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 


6.30     2.33     2.60 
6.30     2.33     2.60 


7.80 
7.80 


5.20 
5.20 


7.80 
7.80 


20 


163.07 

146.55 

133.55 

123.09 

111.19 

101.72 

92.26 

69.70 

67.28 


157.44 

130.64 

117.64 

108.17 

96.52 

85.96 

69.10 

54.98 


49.08 
39.62 


The  cost  of  those  items  which  do  not  vary  with 
the  size  of  the  family  is  divided  in  the  Federal  re- 

18  Ibid.,  p,  243. 


THE  COST  OF  A  STANDARD  OF  LIVING      93 

port  between  two  groups  of  nationalities.  The  only- 
real  difference  between  these  two  groups  of  nation- 
alities is  the  amount  of  rent  paid,  the  English,  Irish 
and  Canadian  French  paying  $132  per  year  and  the 
Portuguese,  Polish  and  Italians  paying  $90.96. 
There  should  have  been  no  difficulty  in  determining 
which  of  these  two  rent  expenditures  provides  a 
fair  standard  of  living.  However,  since  the  report 
makes  no  such  distinction,  we  may  for  our  present 
purposes  adopt  the  requirements  of  the  English, 
Irish  and  French  Canadian  group. ^^ 

Cost  of  items  that  do  not  vary  with  size  of  family,  for  families  of 
specified  races — Fair  standard,     English,  Irish  and  Canadian  French. 

Eent,  per  year $132.00 

Fuel,  per  year   36.50 

Light,  per  year   6.25 

Sundries,  per  year 13.00 

Newspapers,  per  year  8.84 

Incidentals,  per  year 26.00 

Total    $222.59 

The  total  cost  of  providing  a  fair  standard  for 
the  English,  Irish  and  Canadian  Fretich  normal 
family  is,  therefore,  $731.90. 

Since  the  Chapin  study  was  made  for  the  avowed 
purpose  of  determining  the  cost  of  a  fair  standard, 
particular  interest  attaches  to  the  conclusions 
reached  as  a  result  of  that  investigation.  In  sum- 
ming up  the  results  of  his  study,  Dr.  Chapin  writes, 
"An  income  of  $900  or  more  probably  permits  the 
maintenance  of  a  normal  standard,  at  least  so  far 
as  the  physical  man  is  concerned."     This  statement 

i*Ibid.,  p.  244. 


94     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAIIILY 

refers  to  a  normal  family — man,  wife  and  three  chil- 
dren nnder  fourteen,  and  covers  conditions  in  New 
York  City.  By  way  of  explaining  the  above  state- 
ment, Dr.  Chapin  continues  on  the  same  page — '*An 
examination  of  the  items  of  the  budget  shows  that 
the  families  having  from  $900  to  $1,000  a  year  are 
able,  in  general,  to  get  food  enough  to  keep  soul  and 
body  together,  and  clothing  and  shelter  enough  to 
meet  the  most  urgent  demands  of  decency.  Sixty- 
eight  per  cent,  of  the  $900  families  have  4  rooms 
or  more,  the  average  number  of  rooms  being  3.75. 
The  average  expenditure  for  fuel  allows  comforta- 
ble provision;  one-quarter  of  the  families  report 
gathering  wood  on  the  streets.  Only  1  family  in  6, 
in  Manhattan  only  1  in  15,  is  without  gas.  The  av- 
erage expenditure  for  food  is  a  trifle  over  $400, 
enough  to  provide  adequate  nourishment,  and  only 
5  families  out  of  63,  or  1  in  12,  report  less  than  the 
minimum  or  22  cents  per  man  per  day.  As  to  cloth- 
ing, gifts  are  reported  still  in  one-fourth  of  the  cases, 
but  the  average  amount  expended  is  between  $130 
and  $140,  and  3  families  out  of  every  4  spend  more 
than  $100.  Dispensaries  and  free  hospitals  are  not 
for  the  $900  and  $1,000  families  the  main  dei>endence 
in  cases  of  illness.  The  expenditures  for  furniture 
indicate  that  the  existing  outfit  is  fairly  well  main- 
tained and  the  equipment  as  it  stands  reported  fairly 
comfortable  in  the  case  of  three-fourths  of  the  $900 
families,  and  of  seven-eighths  in  the  $1,000  group. 
Participation  in  the  benefits  of  labor  unions  or  re- 
ligious and  fraternal  organizations  becomes  possible 


THE  COST  OF  A  STANDARD  OF  LIVING      95 

to  tlie  majority  of  the  families,  and  some  margin  is 
available  for  the  pursuit  of  amusements  and  recrea- 
tion, the  purchase  of  books  and  papers,  and  the  in- 
dulgence of  personal  tastes  outside  of  the  indis- 
pensable necessities  of  existence. "  ^^ 

Eegarding  incomes  below  $900,  Dr.  Chapin  makes 
the  following  statement — ''Whether  an  income  be- 
tween $800  and  $900  can  be  made  to  suffice  is  a  ques- 
tion to  which  our  data  do  not  warrant  a  dogmatic 
answer.'' ^^  The  expenditures  upon  which  these 
statements  are  based  are  most  interesting.  A  study 
of  the  figures  covering  food,  rent,  fuel  and  light, 
clothing  and  sundries  shows  a  continual  increase  in 
the  amount  expended  until  an  income  of  about  $1,000 
is  reached.  After  that  point,  the  increase  in  ex- 
penditure goes  almost  entirely  to  clothing  and 
sundries. 

Although  no  accurate  comparison  can  justly  be 
made  between  the  conclusions  reached  in  different 
studies,  it  is  nevertheless  possible  to  set  down  side 
by  side  the  statements  made  by  the  various  investi- 
gators regarding  the  cost  of  a  fair  standard  of  liv- 
ing. In  the  following  table  there  is  included  a  re- 
sume of  the  study  made  in  Homestead  by  Margaret 
F.  Byington.^"^  Although  Miss  Byington's  study  is 
neither  so  complete  nor  so  scientific  as  the  other 
two  investigators',  it  is  nevertheless  worthy  of  no- 
tice. 

15  Chapin,  op.  cit. 

16  Ibid.,  p.  246. 

17  Margaret  F.  Byington,  Homestead,  chapter  6,  Charities  Pub- 
lication Committee,  New  York,  1910. 


96     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

Cost  of  tHe  various  items  entering  into  a  normal  standard  of  living  in 

various  localities,  for  a  family  consisting  of  a  man,  wife,  and 

a  girl  of  ten,  a  boy  of  six  and  a  boy  of  four. 

Georgia 

Manhattan  Fall  and  North 

Island.  River.  Carolina.     Homestead. 

Food    $359.00  $313.00  $289.00  $445.00 

Housing    168.00  131.00  44.81  200.00 

Clothing     113.00  136.80  113.00  175.00 

Fuel  and  light 41.00  42.75  49.16  46.80 

Carfare   16.00  

Health    22.00  11.65  16.40  30.00 

Insurance   18.00  18.25  18.25  95.00 

Sundry  items    74.00  90.90  78.25  298.41 

Total   $811.00  $745.35  $708.87  $1290.87 

The  cost  of  a  fair  standard  of  living  in  tlie  four 
groups  of  families  considered  is  remarkably  similar 
for  the  first  three  and  remarkably  dissimilar  for  the 
fourth.  The  discrepancy  between  the  first  three 
conclusions  and  the  fourth  may  be  readily  accounted 
for  on  the  grounds — first,  that  Miss  Byington  al- 
lowed $.37  per  man  per  day  for  food,  while  the  allow- 
ance for  Manhattan  Island  was  $.22,  Fall  River  was 
$.26,  and  the  Southern  States  was  $.24.  Miss  By- 
ington's  food  bill  was,  therefore,  50  per  cent,  higher 
than  that  in  any  one  of  the  three  cases.  Her  allow- 
ance for  sundry  items  is  nearly  $300  as  opposed  to 
less  than  $100  in  the  other  cases.  Unfortunately, 
Miss  Byington 's  conclusion  is  based  on  the  actual 
expenditure  of  a  number  of  families  rather  than  on 
the  amount  of  goods  necessary  to  maintain  a  fair 
standard  of  living.  With  the  exception  of  these  two 
items,  however,  her  budget  does  not  differ  materi- 
ally from  that  of  the  other  studies. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  stated  by  way  of  a  general 


THE  COST  OF  A  STANDARD  OF  LIVING      97 

conclusion,  that  the  available  data  indicate  that  a 
man,  wife  and  three  children  under  fourteen  cannot 
maintain  a  fair  standard  of  living  in  the  industrial 
towns  of  Eastern  United  States  on  an  amount  less 
than  $700  a  year  in  the  Southern,  and  $750  a  year 
in  the  Northern  States.  In  the  large  cities,  where 
rents  are  higher,  this  amount  must  be  increased  by 
at  least  $100. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Incjome  and  Standards  of  Liyinq  . 

/.    Income  and  Family  Standards, 

The  determination  of  the  amount  and  the  cost  of 
a  sum  of  goods  which  constitute  a  standard  of  liv- 
ing for  various  localities,  leads  to  the  third  and 
fourth  questions  stated  at  the  end  of  the  first  chap- 
ter— ''Are  the  wages  of  adult  males  sufficient  to  pur- 
chase such  a  sum  of  goods?"  and  "Does  the  income 
of  the  entire  family  admit  of  their  purchase  ? '  ^  Here 
are  raised  two  quite  distinct  issues.  The  assumption 
that  a  father  is  responsible  for  financing  his  family 
is  frequently  made.  Considerable  opposition  has 
developed  to  the  entrance  into  industry  of  women 
and  children  /)n  the  ground  that  they  were  better  off 
in  the  home.  Do  the  present  relations  of  possible 
income  and  necessary  expenditure  permit  the  father, 
unaided,  to  finance  his  family?  Are  the  wages  of 
women  and  children  a  necessary  supplement  to  the 
earnings  of  men  in  the  maintenance  of  a  fair  or  a 
minimum  standard  of  living? 

If  the  wage  of  the  father  proves  adequate  for  fam- 
ily support,  the  issue  regarding  the  working  of 
women  and  children  may  be  dealt  with  purely  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  desirableness  or  undesirable- 

98 


INCOME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING        99 

ness  of  woman  and  child  labor  in  industry.  If, 
however,  the  wages  of  men  are  inadequate  for  family 
support,  the  whole  question  assumes  new  propor- 
tions. The  issue  then  lies  between  the  desirable- 
ness of  woman  and  child  work,  and  of  an  efficiency, 
or  even  of  a  subsistence  family  income.  The  statis- 
tics of  income,  while  far  from  satisfactory,  are  much, 
more  complete  than  the  statistics  of  standards  of 
living.  Though  they  cannot  be  relied  upon  abso- 
lutely, they  do  show,  ratber  clearly,  the  relation  of 
the  wages  of  men,  women  and  children  to  family  in- 
come and  expenditure. 

II,    Sources  of  Family  Income. 

There  are  four  principal  sources  of  family  in- 
come— (1)  earnings  of  the  father;  (2)  earnings  of 
the  mother;  (3)  earnings  of  children;  and  (4)  the 
contributions  of  boarders  and  lodgers.  In  addition 
to  these  four  generally-relied  upon  sources,  there 
are  a  number  of  accidental  ones,  sucb  as  kitchen 
gardens,  the  collection  of  wood,  cast  off  clothing 
and  furniture,  charity  contributions  and  the  like. 
Of  course,  those  families  which  live  in  small  towns, 
and  can  secure,  at  a  reasonable  figure,  a  good  sized 
tract  of  land,  can  provide  a  large  proportion  of  their 
food  supply,  keep  a  cow  and  chickens,  and  sell  part 
of  their  products.  Such  a  family  is  the  exception, 
however,  since  three-fourths  of  the  population  in  in- 
dustrial districts  live  in  towns  and  cities.^  In  some 
cities  and  among  some  nationalities,  wood  collect- 

i  Abstracts  of  the  12th  Census, 


100     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAJMILY 

ing  is  an  important  item.  Of  Chapin's  391  families, 
36  per  cent,  report  the  collection  of  fuel  on  the 
streets.  The  Irish  use  express  wagons ;  the  Italian 
women,  carrying  huge  bundles  of  wood  on  their 
heads,  constitute  one  of  the  sights  of  the  Italian 
quarter.  Cast  off  clothing  and  charitable  assist- 
ance of  various  kinds  are  also  met  with  in  many  of 
the  lower  income  families.  Chapin  reports  that  of 
318  families,  87  reported  gifts  of  clothing — *'In  the 
case  of  the  families  receiving  gifts,  however,  the 
movement  is  quite  erratic,  perhaps  because  the 
amount  of  gifts  received  bears  no  necessary  relation 
to  income."  Such  sources  of  income  frequently 
exist,  and  an  accurate  analysis  of  the  problems  in- 
volved in  the  determination  of  standards  of  living 
must  take  them  into  consideration.  For  the  pur- 
poses of  the  present  chapter,  however,  interest  does 
not  center  about  these  secondary  sources  of  family 
income — first,  because  they  are  very  insignificant  at 
best,  and  second,  because  the  issue  here  raised  is  a 
question  of  earnings — do  the  members  of  the  house- 
hold earn  enough  to  insure  efficiency? 

The  issues  presented  at  this  point  may  be  sum- 
marized thus: 

1.  Are  the  wages  paid  to  men  sufficient  to  enable 

them  to  maintain  a  standard  of  living  for  a 
family  of  three  children? 

2.  If  they  are  not  in  all  cases  sufficient,  what  ad- 

ditions to  family  income  can  be  secured  from 
sources  other  than  the  father? 


( 


INCOjME  and  standards  of  living      101 

3.  Are  the  family  incomes  now  secured  in  the 
United  States  sufficient  to  maintain  a  stand- 
ard of  living? 

///.    The  Income  of  Adult  Males. 

A  number  of  recent  investigations  throw  some 
light  on  the  wage  problem  of  the  adult  male.  The 
most  reliable  of  these  investigations  appear  in  the 
Federal  Report  on  Wages  and  Hours  of  Labor  in  the 
Steel  Industry  (1912) ;  the  Federal  Report  on  the 
South  Bethlehem  Steel  Works  (1910) ;  the  Statis- 
tics of  the  State  Labor  Bureaus  of  Massachusetts, 
New  Jersey,  California,  Wisconsin,  and  Kansas; 
the  Federal  Investigation  of  Telephone  Companies; 
the  Census  of  Manufacturers  (1905) ;  and  the  An- 
nual Reports  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion. Althoughj  the  reliability  of  these  statistics 
varies,^  they  are  all  worthy  of  statistical  considera- 
tion. . 

The  Census  of  Manufacturers  for  1905  contains 
the  most  extended  data,  as  it  includes  a  compilation 
of  the  wages  of  more  than  two  and  a  half  million 
men  16  years  of  age  and  over.^  The  figures  fur- 
nished by  the  manufacturers  relate  to  the  week  in 
1905  during  which  the  largest  number  of  persons 
were  employed.  The  statistics  include  reports  on  47 
per  cent,  of  all  male  wage-earners  engaged  in  manu- 

2  Scott  Nearixg,  Wages  in  the  United  States,  p.  210,  The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  Xew  York,   1911. 

3  Census  of  Manufacturers  of  1905.  The  Earnings  of  Wage-Earn- 
ers, Census  Bulletin  No.  93,  Grovernment  Printing  OflSce,  Washing- 
ton, 1908.  . 


102     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

facturing  in  the  United  States.  Of  the  total  male 
employes  reported  on  (2,619,053)  a  quarter  received 
less  than  $8  per  week ;  three-fifths  received  under  $12 
per  week;  four-fifths  under  $15  per  week;  and 
only  6  per  cent,  were  paid  more  than  $20  per  week.* 

The  steel  industry  which  employs  male  workers 
only,  and  in  which  the  number  of  boys  is  small  as 
compared  with  textile  and  similar  industries,  shows 
a  wage  similar  to  that  for  adult  males  employed  in 
all  manufacturing  industries.  The  recent  Federal 
report  ^  includes  a  study  of  172,706  men  in  all  de- 
partments of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Industry.  The 
wages  are  stated  in  terms  of  ''cents  per  hour,"  in- 
stead of  in  weekly  wages.  However,  an  approxi- 
mation to  the  weekly  wage  may  be  made  by  multi- 
plying the  wage  per  hour  by  the  number  of  hours 
worked  per  week  in  a  department.  Such  a  calcula- 
tion shows  that  8  per  cent,  of  the  men  were  receiving 
less  than  $8  per  week ;  that  50  per  cent,  were  receiv- 
ing less  than  $12  per  week;  that  76  per  cent,  were 
receiving  less  than  $15  per  week ;  while  86  per  cent. 
were  receiving  less  than  $20  per  week. 

Two  other  investigations  of  very  recent  date,  re- 
late to  the  textile  industries.  One  made  by  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor  at  the  time 
of  the  strike  in  the  textile  mills  at  Lawrence,  Mass., 
finds  that  in  the  woolen  and  worsted  and  cotton  mills 
of  Lawrence,  the  actual  earnings  of  all  male  wage- 

♦  Ibid.,  p.  11. 

B  Report  on  Conditions  of  Employment  in  the  Iron  and  Steel  In- 
dustry, 62nd  Congress^  Second  Session,  Senate  Doc.  301. 


INCOME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      103 

earners  eighteen  years  of  age  and  over,  during  the 
week  for  which  data  was  secured,  were :  ^ 

Under  $7  per  week — 17.5  per  cent,  of  the  males. 
Under  $10  per  week — 56.4  per  cent,  of  the  males. 
Under  $12  per  week — 69.8  per  cent,  of  the  males. 

The  second  investigation,  made  in  Little  Falls, 
N.  Y.,  a  town  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  hosiery, 
among  eight  hundred  male  workers,  showed  that  the 
weekly  earnings  for  three  weeks  in  September,  1912, 
were :  ^ 

Under  $7  per  week — 17.46  per  cent,  of  the  males. 
Under  $10  per  week — 63.31  per  cent,  of  the  males. 
Under  $12  per  week — 76.73  per  cent,  of  the  males. 

The  results  of  both  investigations  are  quite  uni- 
form. More  than  half  of  the  males  are  earning  less 
than  ten  dollars  per  week,  while  about  three-quar- 
ters receive  less  than  twelve  dollars  per  week. 

The  State  reports,  relating  to  wages  in  all  indus- 
tries, corroborate  these  figures  to  a  remarkable  de- 
gree. The  two  latest  that  have  come  to  hand  (New 
Jersey  and  California)  show  the  wages  of  males 
employed  in  all  of  the  industries  of  those  States. 

Males  earning  per  week — New  Jersey  (1911.)  ^ 
Under  $7  per  week — 10  per  cent. 

6  Chas.  p.  Neill,  Report  on  Strike  of  Textile  WorTcers  in  Law- 
rence, Mass.,  in  1912,  p.  74,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
1912. 

7  The  Little  Falls  Textile  Workers  Dispute.  Advance  Eeprint  for 
the  N.  Y.  Dept.  of  Labor  Bulletin,  March,  1913,  p.  10,  Albany,  Dept. 
of  Labor,  1913. 

8  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  New  Jersey,  1911,  p.  122,  Camden,  1912. 


104     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

Under  $10  per  week — 36  per  cent. 

Under  $12  per  week — 54  per  cent. 

Total  males— 243,753. 

Males  earning  per  week — California  (1911.)  ® 

Less  than  $9^ — 15  per  cent. 

Less  than  $12 — 28  per  cent. 

Less  than  $15 — 43  per  cent. 

Less  than  $20 — 75  per  cent. 

The  New  Jersey  statistics  are  typical  of  the  wage" 
situation  in  the  East.  Although  somewhat  higher 
wages  are  paid  in  the  industries  of  the  State  at  large 
than  are  paid  in  the  textile  industries  of  the  East, 
they  are  typical  of  miscellaneous  industries  in  such 
of  the  Eastern  States  as  have  collected  wage  statis- 
tics. The  wage  scale  on  the  Pacific  Coast  is  on  a 
distinctly  higher  plane.^*^  Unfortunately,  however, 
no  study  of  standards  there  is  available,  and  com- 
parisons are  therefore  impossible. 

If  a  generalization  may  be  made  on  such  inade- 
quate data,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  wages  of  adult 
males  in  those  industries  situated  east  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains,  for  which  figures  are  available,  half  of 
the  adult  males  receive  less  than  $600  a  year,  that 
three-fourths  are  paid  less  than  $750  a  year,  while 
nine-tenths  earn  a  wage  under  $1,000  a  year. 

At  the  end  of  an  exhaustive  consideration  of  the 
wage  statistics  published  at  a  slightly  earlier  period, 

9  Biennial  Report,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  California,  1911-12, 
p.  458,  Sacramento,  1912. 

10  Scott  Neabing,  Wages  in  the  United  States,  Chap.  VIII,  The 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,   1911. 


INCOME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      105 

Dr.  Streiglitoff  writes — ''It  is  reasonable  to  believe 
that  in  1904,  something  over  sixty  per  cent,  of  the 
males  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age,  employed  in 
manufacturing,  mining,  trade,  transportation,  and 
a  few  other  occupations  associated  with  industrial 
life,  were  earning  less  than  $626  per  annum,  about 
thirty  per  cent,  were  receiving  $626  but  under  $1,000, 
and  perhaps  ten  per  cent,  enjoyed  labor  incomes  of 
at  least  $1,000." 

All  of  this  wage  material,  however,  is  secured  by 
computing  the  weekly  wage  in  a  week  during  which 
there  was  the  greatest  amount  of  employment,  or  by 
computing  an  annual  income  from  the  hourly  wage 
or  the  weekly  wage.  In  neither  case  is  allowance 
made  for  unemployment.  An  estimate  of  its  preva- 
lence may,  however,  be  made  from  the  material  pre- 
sented in  the  Census  of  Manufacturers  (1905),  from 
the  Eeports  of  the  New  York,  Massachusetts  and 
New  Jersey  Bureaus  of  Labor,  and  from  the  Ee- 
ports of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  Un- 
employment varies  with  the  year,  with  the  season  of 
the  year,  and  markedly  with  the  industry.  Yet,  if 
a  general  statement  in  so  variable  a  case  is  permis- 
sible, it  may  be  concluded  that  the  average  wage- 
earner  may  expect  an  amount  of  unemployment 
equivalent  to  one-fifth  of  his  working  time.^^ 

11  F.  H.  Stkeightoff,  The  Distribution  of  Income  in  the  United 
States,  Columbia  Univei'sity,  New  York,  1912.  A  full  discussion  of 
the  various  sources  of  data  on  waji^es  will  be  found  in  the  above 
book  and  in  Wages  in  the  United  States,  Scott  Nearing,  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.,   1011. 

12  Scx)TT  Neabing,  Unemployment  in  the  77.  8.,  p.  539,  Quarterly 
Publications  of  the  American  Statistical  Association,  Sept.,  1909. 


106     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNEE'S  FAMILY 

Making  this  reduction  from  the  total  annual  earn- 
ings as  computed  from  the  Tveekly  or  hourly  earn- 
ings, it  appears  that,  in  the  district  lying  east  of  the 
Kocky  Mountains  and  north  of  the  Maryland  and 
Dixon  Line,  "half  of  the  adult  males  in  the  United 
States  are  earning  less  than  $500  a  year ;  that  three- 
fourths  of  them  are  earning  less  than  $600  annually ; 
that  nine-tenths  of  them  are  receiving  less  than  $800 
a  year;  while  less  than  ten  per  cent,  receive  more 
than  that  figure/' ^^ 

Although  this  statement  of  wages  is  necessa"rily  an 
estimate  rather  than  an  emphatically  accurate  state- 
ment, it  is  based  on  a  number  of  very  diverse  sources 
of  information  which  are  all  remarkably  similar  in 
their  result,  and  which  in  the  cases  of  the  Iron  and 
Steel  investigation,  The  Bethlehem  Steel  Works  in- 
vestigation, The  Federal  investigation  at  Lawrence 
and  the  New  York  study  at  Little  Falls  and  the  State 
statistics  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey  are 
fairly  accurate. 

A  comparison  of  this  statement  with  the  data 
relative  to  the  cost  of  a  standard  of  living,  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  since  a  minimum  standard  of 
living  for  a  normal  family  costs  from  $450  in  a  small 
industrial  town  to  $650  in  a  large  city  that  approxi- 
mately half  of  the  male  wage-earners  under  consid- 
eration are  unable  to  provide  a  minimum  standard 
in  a  small  town  and  approximately  three-fourths 
are  unable  to  provide  a  minimum  standard  in  a 
large  city.    On  the  other  hand,  since  a  fair  or  an 

i»  Wages  in  the  United  States,  op.  cit.,  p.  213, 


INCOME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      107 

eflficiency  standard  for  a  normal  family  involves  an 
outlay  of  from  $600  in  a  small  industrial  town  to 
$900  in  a  large  city,  three-fourths  of  the  wage-earners 
in  small  towns  and  nine-tenths  of  the  wage-earners 
in  large  cities  are  unable  to  provide  a  fair  or  effi- 
ciency standard  for  a  normal  family. 

The  statement  cannot  be  too  often  reiterated,  nor 
too  strongly  emphasized,  that  these  figures  are  esti- 
mates. They  are  stated  in  bald  fractions,  because 
the  facts  on  which  they  are  based  do  not  justify  any 
other  form  of  statement.  No  competent  statistician 
would  venture  an  even  approximate  general  judg- 
ment on  material  of  so  scanty  a  character  as  that 
provided  by  the  investigations  in  Fall  Eiver,  North 
Carolina,  Georgia,  New  York  City  and  Homestead. 
The  wage  facts  are  likewise  extremely  inadequate. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  obvious  that  the  available 
facts  all  point  in  the  same  direction,  thus  corrobo- 
rating one  another  to  a  surprising  extent.  A  care- 
ful perusal  of  the  Federal  or  of  the  Chapin  studies 
fails  to  show  the  inclusion  of  any  items  which  seem 
unnecessary  to  a  minimum  or  fair  standard  of  liv- 
ing. "While  common  experience  with  wage  condi- 
tions, together  with  all  of  the  supplementary  data 
recently  published  regarding  wages  in  various  in- 
dustries, confirm  the  wage  statistics. 

Despite  the  inadequacy  of  the  figures  upon  which 
the  conclusion  is  based,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that 
until  some  figures  are  adduced  which  at  least  point 
in  the  opposite  direction,  it  is  fair  to  assert  that  it 
is  financially  impossible  for  an  overwhelming  ma- 


108     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FA]\riLY 

jority  of  male  wa^e-earners  in  tlie  industries  for 
which  facts  are  available  to  provide  a  fair  standard 
cf  living  for  a  family  of  three  children,  and  further 
that  a  considerable  proportion  of  these  wage-earn- 
ers do  not  receive  a  wage  large  enough  to  pro- 
vide even  a  minimum  standard  of  living  for  such  a 
family. 

It  does  not  at  all  follow  from  this  statement  that 
such  a  proportion  of  families  fail  to  secure  a  min- 
imum or  a  fair  standard  of  living.  On  the  contrary, 
the  wages  of  the  men  are  supplemented  by  the  earn- 
ings of  women  and  children,  and  by  other  secondary 
income  sources,  to  an  extent  which  adds  considerably 
to  the  possibilities  of  family  income. 

4 

IV.    Contributions    of    Women   and    Children    to 
Family  Income. 

There  are,  then,  a  considerable  number  of  adult 
males  working  in  the  industrial  districts  of  the 
United  States  whose  wage  is  insufficient  to  provide 
minimum  or  subsistence  standard  of  living,  while 
an  over-whelming  majority  receive  a  wage  insuffi- 
cient to  provide  an  efficiency  or  fair  standard. 
Hence  the  patent  necessity  for  some  additions  to  the 
father  *s  wage  through  the  efforts  of  the  mother  and 
the  children. 

Aside  from  individual  family  budgets  which  detail 
sources  of  income,  it  is  difficult  to  discover  the  earn- 
ing capacity  of  the  mother  and  children.  The  total 
number  of  married  women  and  of  children  who  work 
is  comparatively  small.    Only  5.6  per  cent,  of  all 


INCOME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      109 

married  women  in  the  United  States  are  gainfully- 
employed,  while  the  number  of  children  at  work  is 
approximately  one  million  and  three-quarters. 

Of  the  588,599  women  sixteen  years  of  age  and 
over,  reported  on  by  the  Federal  Census  of  Manu- 
facturers in  1905,  7.5  per  cent,  received  less  than  $3 
a  week ;  33.5  per  cent,  received  less  than  $5  per  week ; 
66.3  per  cent,  were  paid  a  wage  under  $7  a  week; 
91.7  per  cent,  were  paid  less  than  $10  per  week, 
leaving  only  8.3  per  cent,  receiving  wages  of  more 
than  $10  per  week. 

Miss  Butler's  study  of  the  wages  of  women  in 
thirty-four  Baltimore  department  stores  leads  her 
to  the  conclusion  that — ''Of  4,048  women  in  differ- 
ent wage  groups,  it  is  of  interest  that  2,184,  or  fifty- 
four  per  cent.,  are  earning  $5  or  less,  and  that  3,266, 
or  eighty-one  per  cent.,  are  earning  $6  or  less."  ^* 

The  Federal  study  includes  investigations  in  five 
industries.  The  wages  of  women,  as  found  in  these 
industries,  were: 

Percentage  of  females  earning  certain  weekly  wages. 

Under     Under     Under   Under 
$4  $6  $8  $10 

Silk 
New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  15 37.7         70.7         84.4        96.2 

Cotton  Textile 

New  England  16    14.6  40.2  69.0  87.1 

Southern    39.7  73.9  93.0  98.6 

Stores  17    7.  30.8  76.2  94.3 

Men's  clothing  is    22.7  51.7  74.6  88.6 

i*E.  B.  Butler,  Salestoomen  in  Mercantile  Stores,  p.  113,  Chari- 
ties Publication  Committee,  New  York,  1912. 

15  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners,  op.  cit.,  vol.  4,  p.  15. 

16  Ibid.,  vol.  1,  p.  305. 
.     17  Ibid.,  vol.  5,  p.  41. 

"Ibid.,  vol.  2,  p.  129. 


110     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

These  instances  more  than  bear  out  the  general 
conclusion  regarding  the  wages  of  females  in  Ameri- 
can industry.  ''Three-fifths  of  the  women  receive 
less  than  $8  per  week  ($400  per  year),  while  a  van- 
ishing percentage  of  them  is  paid  more  than  $15  per 
week  ($750  per  year).  Nearly  nine-tenths  of  the 
women  employed  in  these  various  states  and  trades 
are  paid  less  than  $12  per  week  ($600  per  year)."  ^* 
From  these  statements,  it  appears  that  three-fifths 
of  the  adult  women  employed  in  the  United  States 
receive  less  than  $400  annually ;  that  four-fifths  are 
receiving  less  than  $600  a  year ;  that  nine-tenths  are 
earning  less  than  $750  a  year;  while  one-twentieth 
are  paid  more  than  $750  a  year. 

As  in  the  case  of  men,  a  deduction  should  be  made 
for  unemployment  owing  to  the  unskilled,  casual 
character  of  the  work  done  by  most  women.  This 
deduction  should  probably  be  greater,  though  there 
is  no  way  of  telling  by  how  much.  The  possible 
contributions  of  women  to  family  income  are  thus 
severely  limited  by  the  low  wages  of  women 
workers.  The  wife,  if  she  can  hold  a  regular  posi- 
tion, may,  however,  earn  sixty  per  cent,  as  much  as 
her  husband. 

The  only  source  of  information  regarding  the 
wages  of  children  under  fourteen  is  furnished  by  the 
Federal  study  of  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners. 
From  this  study,  it  appears  that  in  the  silk  industry 
in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  the  earnings  of 
children    under    fourteen    amount    to    $115    per 

19  Wages  in  the  United  States,  op.  cit.,  pp.  211-12. 


INCOME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      111 

year;  -'^  that  in  the  glass  industry  the  average  annual 
earnings  of  children  under  fourteen  years  were 
$119 ;  -^  that  in  the  men's  clothing  industry  the  aver- 
age annual  earnings  of  children  under  fourteen  were 
$78 ;  ^2  while  in  the  cotton  textile  industry  the  aver- 
age annual  earnings  of  children  under  fourteen 
were,  in  New  England,  $22,  and  in  the  Southern 
States  $114.  From  this  data,  we  may  conclude  that 
while  the  additions  to  family  income  made  by  chil- 
dren under  fourteen  are  very  inconsiderable,  the 
wages  of  adult  women  may  add  from  $200  to  $450  a 
year  to  the  income  of  the  family. 

It  may  be  stated  in  conclusion — if  such  frag- 
mentary figures  justify  a  conclusion,  that  the  wife, 
regularly  employed  may  earn,  perhaps,  three-fifths 
as  much  as  her  husband,  while  the  child  under  four- 
teen, in  the  few  States,  and  in  the  few  industries, 
where  employment  is  possible,  may  receive  an  in- 
come equal  to  a  fifth  or  a  sixth  of  that  paid  to  his 
father. 

These  things  may  be,  but  the  vital  question  at 
issue  is,  are  they?  To  what  extent  do  women  and 
children  under  fourteen  actually  contribute  to  the 
family  income? 

V.    Percentage  of  Family  Income  Derived  from 
Various  Sources. 

It  is  not  all  clear  just  what  percentage  of  family 
income  is  derived  from  the  various  sources.    The 

20  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners,  op.  cit.,  vol.  4,  p.  258. 

21  Ibid.,  vol.  3,  p.  524. 

22  Ibid.,  vol.  2,  p.  364. 


112     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

matter  is  further  obscured  by  the  wide  divergence 
in  the  results  attained  by  the  several  studies. 
Whether  this  divergence  be  due  to  the  varying  lo- 
cality, occupation  or  nationality  of  the  families  un- 
der discussion  must  remain  a  matter  of  opinion. 
The  facts  themselves  do  not  answer  the  question. 

The  data  on  the  Federal  study  of  Woman  and 
Child  Wage-Earners  is,  of  course,  collected  from 
families  in  which  there  are  women  and  children  at 
work.  Since  only  5.6  per  cent,  of  married  women 
are  gainfully  occupied,  the  results  of  the  Federal 
study  would  be  applicable  to  only  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  population.  Collected  in  four  industries 
(silk,  glass,  clothing  and  cotton)  in  which  a  large 
proportion  of  women  and  children  are  employed, 
the  conclusions  based  on  such  data  are  certainly 
not  applicable  to  steel  making,  and  railroading  in 
which  men  alone  work.  An  example  of  the  Federal 
study  figures  follows: 

Earnings  of  wive%  having  husbands  at  work. 

Per  cent,  of 
family  in- 
Total  Total  family      Earnings  come  earned 
families.  income.  of  wives.      by  wife. 
Silk  28 

New  Jersey   116  $  884  $276  31 

Pennsylvania  ...     33  760  122  16 

Cotton  24 

New  England    ,.112  1034  306  30 

Southern    143  764  183  24 

23  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners,  op.  cit.,  vol.  IV,  p.  277. 
2*  Ibid.,  p.  465. 


INCOME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      113 

The  Report  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
of  1903  covering  all  industries,  shows  the  following 
distribution  of  family  income : 

Summary  of  families  having  an  income  from  various  sources  by  gen- 
eral nativity  of  head  of  family. '^'^ 

Per  cent,  of  families  with 

Families.  an  income  from  occu-  Boarders 

Average  pation  of  Other       and 

Number,     size,     husbands,  wives,  children,  sources,  lodgers. 

Native    ..15,161       4.67         96.23         8.84         18.65         14.08         21.81 

Foreign    .10,279       5.18         95.46         8.10        27.40         14.75         25.40 

Total      25,440       4.88         95.92         8.54         22.19         14.35         23.26 

The  student  must  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  these 
figures  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  refer  entirely  to 
the  source  and  not  at  all  to  the  amount  of  the  con- 
tribution. The  table  shows  that  fathers  contributed 
to  family  income  in  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  cases 
— not  that  fathers  contributed  ninety-five  per  cent. 
of  the  income.  Of  these  25,440  families,  more  than 
nine-tenths  derive  income  from  husbands;  one- 
twelfth  have  an  income  from  wives ;  one-fifth  an  in- 
come from  children ;  one-fifth  an  income  from  board- 
ers and  lodgers  and  one-sixth  from  other  sources. 

The  extent  to  which  the  various  sources  con- 
tributed to  family  income  is  a  very  different  matter. 
In  this  group  of  25,440  families,  the  proportion  of 
income  secured  from  the  various  sources  was : 

Husbands    79.49 

Wives     1-47 

Children     9.49 

Boarders  and  lodgers   7.78 

Other  sources   1.77 

Total    100% 

26  Cost  of  Living  and  Retail  Prices  of  Food,  Commissioner  of  La- 
bor, 1903,  p.  51,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  1904. 


114     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

The  contribution  of  husbands,  including  those 
families  in  which  there  were  no  husbands  consti- 
tutes four-fifths  of  the  whole  income.  Women  and 
children  together  contribute  one-tenth,  while  board- 
ers and  lodgers  supply  the  remaining  tenth. 

By  far  the  most  helpful  data  is  that  furnished  by 
Chapin:2« 


Sources  of  income 

Averages  and  percentages  by  income 

'. 

J3 
(V 

Sh-P 

§d2 

.-4J 

1 

.>»• 

11 

1.2 

Earnin 
of  f  ath( 
Per  cen 

m  O 

From 
lodgers 
Per  ccn 

o 
1 

aiP4 

!  400-  499 

8 

$  452.38 

96.8 

2.2 

1.0 

500-  599 

17 

544.11 

93.6 

3.2 

3.2 

600-  699 

72 

650.17 

94.0 

2.3 

2.8 

0.9 

700-  799 

79 

748.33 

89.5 

4.8 

5.2 

0.5 

800-  899 

73 

846.26 

84.2 

9.7 

5.5 

0.6 

900-  999 

63 

942.03 

85.0 

11.4 

3.1 

0.5 

1000-1099 

31 

1044.48 

81.7 

11.6 

5.8 

0.9 

1100-1199 

18 

1137.42 

88.3 

6.1 

4.3 

1.3 

1200-1299 

8 

1256.25 

80.6 

11.1 

8.3 

1300-1399 

6 

1344.12 

76.5 

7.0 

16.5 

1400-1499 

1 

1425.00 

91.2 

1500-1599 

6 

1518.47 

81.4 

7.9 

6.2 

4.5 

While  the  number  of  families  under  consideration 
is  small,  the  conclusions  are  fully  as  reliable  as  those 
to  be  made  from  the  Federal  investigation.  No 
where  in  the  different  income  groups  does  the  father 
earn  less  than  four-fifths  of  the  income,  and  in  four 
of  the  twelve  groups,  he  earns  more  than  nine-tenths 
of  the  total  income.  While  the  earnings  of  the 
mother  are  not  separated  from  those  of  the  children, 
the  total  from  these  two  sources  is,  in  almost  all 
classes,  less  than  10  per  cent.^^ 

26  CuAPTS,  op.  cit.,  p.  63. 

27  The  budgets  of  212  Iklinnesota  families   (living  in  Minneapolis 


INCOJVIE  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      115 

The  great  discrepancy  between  the  percentage  of 
income  earned  by  the  father  in  those  families  re- 
ported upon  by  the  Federal  investigation  and  by 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  and  those 
reported  on  by  Chapin,  is  probably  the  result  of 
the  method  in  which  the  first  report  was  prepared. 
Since  its  object  was  to  deal  with  the  earnings  of 
women  and  children,  it  naturally  dealt  with  those 
families  in  which  both  women  and  children  worked. 
Hence,  the  investigation  was  necessarily  made  in 
that  comparatively  small  group  of  families  (appar- 
ently less  than  10  per  cent.)  in  which  the  mother  is 
called  upon  to  contribute. 

In  so  far  as  the  other  two  investigations  permit 
of  a  summary,  they  show  that  at  least  four-fifths 
of  the  family  income  is  contributed  by  the  husband ; 
that  the  wife  and  children  contribute  one-tenth, 
while  boarders  and  lodgers  contribute  the  remaining 
tenth.  Since  the  present  study  has  assumed  a 
family  of  five,  consisting  of  husband,  wife,  and 
three  children,  boarders  and  lodgers  cannot  be 
looked  upon  as  a  source  of  family  income  unless 
some  provision  be  made  in  the  budget  for  the  in- 
creased amount  of  food  and  house  room  necessary 
for  them. 

and  Duluth)  collected  for  the  British  Board  of  Trade,  are  analyzed 
in  the  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  (Minnesota)  1909-10,  pp.  559- 
567.  The  percentage  of  weekly  income  earned  by  the  fathers  in  all 
families  was  81.6  per  cent.  In  the  families  having  2,  3.  and  4  mem- 
bers, however,  the  percentage  earned  by  the  father  was  94  per  cent., 
or  95  per  cent,  in  each  case.  In  families  of  eight,  the  percentage 
falls  to  64.7  per  cent.  Thus  the  small  and,  by  inference,  the  young 
families,  depended  almost  wholly  on  the  father.  Of  the  entire  212 
families,  129  or  60  per  cent,  were  supported  wholly  by  the  father. 


116     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

VI.    Incomes  and  Standards  in  Fall  River,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Since  general  comparisons  are  never  so  effective 
as  specific  ones,  the  value  of  a  study  of  living  stand- 
ards would  be  greatly  enhanced  if  it  were  possible 
to  take  a  specific  town,  or  a  specific  industry,  and 
contrast  the  amount  necessary  to  procure  a  stand- 
ard of  living  in  that  town  or  that  industry,  with  the 
wages  actually  paid  there.  Only  one  such  contrast 
can  be  made.  While  it  is  not  in  any  sense  conclu- 
sive, it  is  highly  interesting  and  suggestive. 

Fall  River,  Massachusetts,  was,  in  1908,  the  sub- 
ject of  two  investigations — one  by  the  agents  of  the 
Federal  Bureau  of  Labor  into  standards  of  living, 
the  other  by  the  State  Bureau  of  Statistics,  into 
wages.  A  typical  industrial  town,  dependent  upon 
one  industry,  Fall  Eiver  stands  as  the  only  instance 
of  a  locality  in  which  good  data  regarding  both 
wages  and  standards  have  been  secured. 

The  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  reports 
that  in  1908  there  were  29,758  wage-earners  in  Fall 
Eiver  of  whom  24,225  (80  per  cent.)  were  engaged 
in  the  cotton  industry.  Fall  River  is  thus  almost 
exclusively  a  cotton  mill  town.^^ 

The  exact  wage  figures  for  Fall  River  are  not 
available,  but  the  wages  of  adult  males  (21  years 
of  age  and  over)  engaged  in  the  cotton  industry  of 
Massachusetts  are  available,  and  under  the  circum- 

28  Statistics  of  Manufacturers,  Public  Document,  No.  36,  1908,  p.  4, 
Boston,   1909. 


INCOME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      117 

stances,  they  may  be  compared  with  the  Fall  Eiver 
standards  study — first,  because  somewhat  more  than 
one-fourth  of  all  the  employes  in  the  Massachu- 
setts cotton  industry  are  in  Fall  Eiver  (24,225  out 
of  90,935) ;  and  second,  because  the  statistics  of  av- 
erage wages  show  a  comparatively  slight  variation 
in  the  wages  of  cotton  mill  operatives  in  the  leading 
cotton  manufacturing  towns.  The  average  wages 
of  all  cotton  mill  employes  in  the  four  largest  cen- 
ters were :  ^^ 

Fall  River $447.40 

Lawrence   437.54 

Lowell    444.77 

Winchester    433.74 

The  extreme  in  variation  (Winchester  to  Fall 
Hiver)  is  less  than  three  per  cent.  The  wage  sta- 
tistics of  the  cotton  industry  in  the  State  at  large 
may,  therefore,  be  fairly  compared  with  the  stand- 
ards of  living  established  for  Fall  Eiver. 

The  same  report  which  gives  the  earnings  of 
adult  males  contains  the  statement  that  in  the  year 
under  consideration  the  "average  number  of  days 
in  operation"  for  cotton  mills  was  269.62  (86  per 
cent,  of  the  total  possible  working  time) ;  and  the 
''average  proportion  of  business  done"  was  75.92 
per  cent.^®  Evidently,  therefore,  at  some  of  the 
time  during  which  the  mills  were  in  operation  they 
were  not  running  a  full  quota  of  employes.  With- 
out taking  any  account  of  sickness  and  accident — 
two  inevitable  causes  of  unemployment — it  is  most 

29  Ibid.,  pp.  17-24.  80  Ibid.,  p.  125. 


118     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

conservative  to  say  that  the  unemployment  in  the 
cotton  industry  equaled  20  per  cent.  In  the  com- 
putation of  annual  from  weekly  earnings,  a  deduction 
of  20  per  cent,  has,  therefore,  been  made. 

Cumulative  percentage  of  adult  males   (21  years  of  age  and  over) 

earning  weekly  and  yearly  wages.     Cotton  goods 

industry — Mass.,  1908.^^ 

Earned  per  Earned  per 

week,  year, 

Per  cent.  less  than  less  than 

16    $7    $291 

69    10    461 

91    15    624 

97   20    816 

Apparently,  three-fifths  of  the  adult  males  in  the 
cotton  industry  of  Massachusetts — and  by  inference 
in  FaU  River — earned  less  than  $416  per  year ;  nine- 
tenths  earned  less  than  $624  per  year;  while  only 
three  in  a  hundred  earned  more  than  $816  per  year. 
Compare  these  figures  with  the  $484.41,  minimum 
standard,  and  the  $690.95,  efficiency  standard,  es- 
tablished for  Fall  River  by  the  Federal  study,  and  it 
appears  that  the  wages  earned  by  males  over  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  are,  in  over  half  of  the  cases,  in- 
sufficient to  maintain  a  minimum  standard,  and  in 
over  nine-tenths  of  the  cases  insufficient  to  maintain 
a  fair  standard  for  a  family  of  three  children.^^ 

Statisticians  will  exclaim  that  such  a  comparison 

81  Ibid.,  p.  91. 

32  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  cotton  goods  industry  is  one 
of  the  lowest  paid  industries  in  the  United  States — one  of  the  in- 
dustries in  which  one  would  expect  to  find  the  greatest  discrepancy 
between  wages  and  standards.  See  Scott  Xkabixg,  Wages  in  the 
United  States,  Chapters  3  and  4,  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York, 
1911. 


INCOIME  AND  STANDARDS  OF  LIVING      119 

is  crude.  It  is  crude.  They  will  object  that  the 
basis  in  fact  is  not  adequate  to  warrant  the  conclu- 
sion. That  is  true.  They  will  insist  that  inference 
has  no  place  in  statistical  literature.  No  objection 
could  be  more  justifiable.  Nevertheless,  in  the  face 
of  such  valid  criticism,  the  fact  remains  that  the 
one  case  in  which  comparable  statistics  of  stand- 
ards and  wages  are  available,  confirms  the  impres- 
sion of  the  general  statistics  regarding  the  utter 
inadequacy  of  the  wages  of  many  adult  males  to 
provide  efficiency  or  even  subsistence  for  their  fam- 
ilies. 

•  VII.    The  Family  Standard. 

The  discussion  in  this  chapter  has  been  confined 
wholly  to  an  arbitrarily  selected  family,  consisting 
of  a  man,  wife  and  three  children  under  fourteen. 
Obviously,  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  total  fam- 
ilies in  the  United  States  fall  within  this  class.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Census  of  1900,^^  there  were  in  the 
country  at  large  16,739,797  families  of  which — 

17.5  per  cent,  were  composed  of  3  persons 
17.0  per  cent,  were  composed  of  4  persons 
14.2  per  cent,  were  composed  of  5  persons 
10.8  per  cent,  were  composed  of  6  persons 
7.7  per  cent,  were  composed  of  7  persons 

The  arbitrary  family  is  selected,  because  no  dis- 
cussion could  be  carried  on  in  the  absence  of  some 
standard.  It  remains  true,  therefore,  that  the  con- 
clusions here  reached  apply,  not  to  all  families  in 

83  Population  in  Census  of  1900,  vol.  II,  p.  clix. 


120     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

the  United  States,  but  to  families  of  this  specified 
size.  It  is  also  true,  however,  that  by  a  little  com- 
putation, standards  could  be  erected  and  conclusions 
reached  for  a  family  of  any  size  under  similar  con- 
ditions. It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  a  family  of  two 
— a  man  and  wife — could  maintain  a  very  decent 
existence,  even  in  the  large  cities  on  $600  per  year. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  family  of  eight  children,  would 
encounter  difficulties  of  the  direst  sort  on  an  income 
of  $900. 

It  is  not  important  that  any  particular  size  of 
family  be  selected;  it  is  not  important  that  these 
conclusions  regarding  that  family  be  accepted  as 
final.  The  really  vital  thing  is  that  the  public  shall 
come  to  believe  that  standards  of  living  are  suscep- 
tible of  definite  measurement;  that  comparisons 
may  be  made  between  wages  and  standards;  that 
each  family  has  a  definite  problem  in  finance;  and 
that  these  problems  constitute,  in  the  aggregate, 
the  problem  of  the  standard  of  living — a  problem 
which  must  be  met  and  mastered  in  the  same  reso- 
lute, dispassionate  spirit  that  has  marked  man*a 
mastery  of  chemistry  and  electricity. 


CHAPTER  V 

The  American  Wage-Eabneb  and  Living  Standards 

I.    The  Issue  before  the  Wage-Earner. 

Finally,  nearly  every  wage-earner  faces  the 
problem  of  family  finance,  either  as  a  prospective 
bridegroom  or  as  a  father.  Anxious  to  insure  the 
well-being  of  his  children,  he  must  consider  the  pos- 
sibilities of  income  and  the  exigencies  of  expendi- 
ture. To  the  wage-earner  individually  as  well  as 
collectively,  the  financial  problem  presses  con- 
stantly for  palliation  or  solution. 

Yonder  stands  a  man  of  twenty,  brought  into  the 
world  by  no  wish  of  his  own;  eared  for  by  his 
father's  toil;  educated  at  the  State's  expense; 
trained  as  a  worker  on  woolen  goods  from  the  day 
when  he  left  school  at  fourteen.  No  torturing 
genius  bums  within  his  placid  soul ;  his  breast  holds 
none  of  the  secrets  of  mechanical  progress ;  with  the 
capacity  and  foresight  of  an  average  healthy  man 
he  faces  the  life  which  stretches  away  before  him 
for  twenty,  thirty,  or  perhaps  forty  years.  He  is 
earning,  at  the  present  time,  while  work  is  good, 
eleven  dollars  a  week  (five  hundred  seventy-two  dol- 
lars a  year) — an  amount  which  is  sufficient  to  sup- 
ply all  of  the  necessaries  and  many  of  the  comforts 

121 


122     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

of  single  life.  Will  his  wage  buy  enough  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter  for  a  wife  and  two,  three  or 
perhaps  five  children!  A  weaver  he  is  and  a 
weaver  he  will  live  and  die — can  he  then  afford  to 
marry? 

Continue  the  question  for  five  years.  Meanwhile 
the  man  has  gone  the  way  of  most  flesh,  married 
and  shouldered  the  responsibilities  of  a  family  of 
three  children — surely  not  an  extravagant  family, 
even  in  these  latter  days  of  extravagance.  Can  he 
give  these  children  a  fair  chance  in  the  world  where 
they  must  compete  for  a  livelihood?  Will  they  be 
well  fed,  clothed  and  educated?  Will  their  young 
lives  be  fresh  and  free,  unhampered  by  misery  and 
want?  Will  this  man's  wage  support  a  family  of 
five  in  decency? 

These  are  two  practical  questions  which  men 
everywhere  must  face.  These  are  two  issues,  in- 
tensely human  in  all  that  they  connote.  "Can  I 
afford  to  marry?"  *'How  will  we  tide  over  this 
winter  with  our  kiddies?"  Here  stands  the  con- 
crete question  of  wages  and  standards  of  living,  in 
all  of  its  phases. 

11.    The  Necessity  for  an  E-fficiency  Standard  of 

Living. 

Apart  from  the  question  of  the  individual  man 
or  of  the  individual  family,  the  problem  presents 
an  abstract,  theoretical  phase  also  in  the  ''efficiency" 
viewpoint  of  society.  The  prevalence  of  the  ''effi- 
ciency-idea" in  the  industrial,  political,  religious 


WAGE-EAENER  AND  STANDARDS  123 

and  social  atmosphere,  maies  any  discussion  of  it 
superfluous.  Even  the  fastest  runners  may  read 
the  plain  writing  on  the  signboards  of  progress. 
The  dullest  of  wit  have  grasped  the  importance  of 
using  sharp  tools.  Whether  behind  the  gun  or  be- 
hind the  steam  shovel,  the  man  must  be  accurate, 
keen,  vigorous,  energetic.    Efficiency  pays. 

Perhaps  the  efficiency  idea  has  taken  the  strong- 
est hold  in  Germany,  but  America  has  been  quick  to 
follow  her  rival's  lead.  From  the  conservation  of 
resources  to  the  icing  of  milk,  from  the  stitching 
of  a  shoe  to  the  welding  of  a  rivet,  efficiency  holds 
sway.  Of  this  gospel  of  efficiency,  scientitic  man- 
agement is  the  apotheosis. 

Conservation,  icing,  stitching,  riveting — even  sci- 
entific management  itself  depends,  in  the  last 
analysis,  upon  muscle,  brain,  and  virility.  Effi- 
ciency is  based  on  manhood.  Manhood  involves  good 
feeding,  sanitary  housing,  adequate  clothing,  recrea- 
tion and  education.  The  nation  which  provides 
these  things  for  its  citizens  is  efficient;  the  nation 
which  fails  to  provide  them  is  not  efficient,  hence 
national  efficiency  must  rest,  in  the  last  analysis,  on 
efficiency  standards  of  living.  The  problems  in- 
volved in  wages,  prices,  and  living  standards  thus 
assume  a  grave  importance  in  national  polity.  The 
question  of  the  efficiency  or  inefficiency  of  living  con- 
ditions forges  to  the  front  as  one  of  prime  interest. 
How  many  battleships  shall  we  build?  Can  this 
foreign  market  be  conquered?  Ask,  rather,  whether 
the  standard  of  American  living  will  man  the  ship, 


124     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

or   produce   with   such   efficiency   as   to    secure   a 
market. 

III.    The  Determination  of  an  Efficiency  Standard. 

It  is  comparatively  easy  to  determine  the  char- 
acter of  a  standard  of  living.  There  is  an  irreduci- 
ble minimum  of  food,  clothing,  housing,  medical 
attention  and  recreation  necessary  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  life;  there  is  a  larger,  but  a  no  less  de- 
terminable amount  of  economic  goods  included  in 
a  standard  of  living  which  will  insure  physical  ef- 
ficiency. These  amounts  of  goods  may  vary  with 
nationality  and  locality,  but  for  any  given  family, 
they  are  well-nigh  absolute. 

Given  a  unit  family  of  five,  it  is  possible  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  food,  clothing,  housing  and  the 
other  necessaries  which  such  a  family  requires.  The 
list  of  goods,  once  secured,  may  be  appraised  at  the 
market  rates  in  any  locality.  Thus  a  basis  is  estab- 
lished on  which  the  relative  efficiency  of  standards 
may  be  determined. 

IV.    The  Cost  of  a  Standard  of  Living. 

What  will  a  standard  of  living  cost  ?  The  answer 
must  vary  with  the  town,  and  even  with  the  section 
of  the  town,  yet  the  studies  which  have  been  made, 
show  that  certain  limits  may  be  set.  The  variation 
in  the  cost  of  the  different  items  of  the  family  bud- 
get is  not  so  extensive  as  has  sometimes  been  as- 
sumed.    The  comparative  tables  prepared  for  the 


WAGE-EARNER  AND  STANDARDS  125 

British  Board  of  Trade  show  that  food  and  rent, 
the  two  largest  items  of  the  family  budget,  do  not 
vary  greatly  from  one  American  city  to  another. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  intensive  studies  made  by 
Chapin,  in  New  York ;  by  the  Federal  Authorities  in 
Fall  River,  North  Carolina  and  Georgia;  by  Miss 
Byington  in  Homestead;  by  the  New  York  com- 
mittee in  Buffalo;  by  Mrs.  More;  and  the  less  re- 
liable, incidental  data  furnished  by  Streightoff ;  *  by 
Mrs.  Bruere ;  ^  and  by  a  host  of  writers  who  have 
popularized  the  various  problems  involved  in  mak- 
ing income  cover  needs  and  wants,  all  tend  to  the 
same  conclusion — namely — that  a  family  of  five — a 
man,  wife  and  three  children  under  fourteen  require 
from  $400  to  $600  to  provide  subsistence,  and  from 
$650  to  $1,000  to  insure  efficiency.  The  variations 
occur  between  different  sections  of  the  country,  be- 
tween different  cities,  and  cities  and  towns. 

In  every  city  as  well  as  in  every  town  and  hamlet, 
there  is  a  minimum  of  economic  goods  necessary  for 
subsistence  and  for  efficiency,  and  hence  there  is  a 
minimum  cost  for  such  items.  Below  the  minimum 
of  efficiency  lies  insufficient  education;  absence  of 
decency  and  privacy;  ill-ventilated  rooms;  unhand- 
some clothing;  and  food  ill-adapted  for  nutrition. 
Below  the  standard  of  subsistence  lies  family  dis- 
solution, misery,  want,  starvation,  disease,  and 
death.     These  inevitable  things,  following  as  night 

1 F.  H.  Stbeightoff,  The  Standard  of  Living,  Chapter  II,  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  Co.,  Boston  1911. 

2  See  a  series  of  articles  in  the  New  York  Outlook,  New  York,  1911- 
1912. 


126     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

follows  day,  present  themselves  to  the  consciousness 
of  the  thinking  wage-earner  who  looks  toward  the 
future. 

F.    The  Wages  of  Adult  Males. 

This  stubborn  minimum  of  subsistence  or  of  ef- 
ficiency can  be  offset  by  income,  and  by  income 
alone.  How  do  incomes  compare  with  the  amounts 
necessary  to  efficiency  or  to  subsistence  ? 

Though  incomplete,  the  available  figures  indicate 
that,  unemployment  deducted,  the  adult  male  wage- 
earners  in  the  manufacturing  and  transportation  in- 
dustries in  that  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Eockies  and  north  of  the  Mason  and  Dixon  Line  re- 
ceive in  annual  earnings : 

One-tenth  under  $325. 
One-fifth  under  $400. 
One-half  under  $500. 
Three-fourths  under  $600. 
One-tenth  over  $800. 

From  $650  to  $1,000  will  buy  a  decent  standard  of 
living  for  a  family  of  five  in  the  industrial  cities  and 
towns  of  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  In  that  same  area,  industries  are  paying  to 
half  of  the  adult  males  a  yearly  wage  of  less  than 
$500  and  to  three-quarters  a  yearly  wage  of  less 
than  $600,  while  only  ten  per  cent,  receive  over  $800. 
Behold  the  temptation  of  the  statistician  to  turn 
guesser,  contrasting  these  two  statements,  asserting 
that  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  the  jobs  offered 


WAGE-EAENER  AND  STANDARDS  127 

to  adult  males  by  the  leading  industries  of  the  North, 
East  and  Central  portions  of  the  United  States  do 
not  permit  the  workers  in  them  to  provide  a  decent 
standard  of  living  for  a  wife  and  three  children 
under  fourteen.  Such  a  generalization,  on  the 
available  facts,  is  statistically  indefensible.  Un- 
equipped with  sufficient  data,  the  statistician  must 
set  the  two  conclusions  side  by  side,  and  leave  them 
there.  Certain  inferences  are,  however,  strictly  in 
order. 

A  comparison  of  the  wages  paid  at  South  Bethle- 
hem ;  in  the  Steel  Industry ;  in  the  Packing  Houses ; 
or  in  any  other  industry  which  is  known  to  be  local- 
ized in  certain  centers,,  with  the  known  cost  of  living 
in  those  centers,  lends  some  color  of  truth  to  the 
idea  that  the  wages  paid  to  a  large  portion  of  adult 
workers  in  those  localities  will  not  permit  the  main- 
tenance of  decent  family  standards.  The  Steel  In- 
dustry in  Pittsburgh,  in  South  Bethlehem ;  the  Pack- 
ing Houses  of  Chicago;  the  Textile  Mills  of  Fall 
Eiver;  the  Silk  Mills  of  Paterson,  pay  to  a  great 
proportion  of  the  adult  male  employes,  wages  which 
will  not  maintain  a  family  on  a  decent  or  fair  stand- 
ard. 

Note  that  inefficiency,  drunkenness,  and  shiftless- 
ness  are  entirely  eliminated  from  the  discussion. 
Irrespective  of  them,  there  is  a  definite  minimum  of 
decent  living ;  and  irrespective  of  them,  American 
industries  pay  to  adult  male  wage-earners  wages 
which  will  not  permit  of  decent  living  for  a  family 
of  three  children.    The  jobs  are  open — they  are  be- 


128     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

ing  offered  and  taken — yes,  competed  for — ^by  un- 
employed men  while  I  write  and  while  you  read 
these  words.  Above  their  boasted  greatness,  be- 
yond their  vaunted  prosperity,  stands  tiie  incontro- 
vertible fact  that  in  many  instances  American  in- 
dustries do  not  pay  enough  wages  to  permit  the 
great  majority  of  male  wage-earners  employed  by 
them,  to  bring  up  a  family  of  three  children  in 
decency.  The  total  family  income  may  be  adequate, 
but  the  wage  of  the  man  alone  is  not. 

VI.    Family  Income  and  the  Standard  of  Living. 

Thus  in  many  cases,  the  wage  of  the  father  alone 
is  wholly  inadequate  to  furnish  a  decent  living  to  a 
family  of  five.  Even  where  wife  and  children  join 
in  wage-earning,  the  situation  is  not  greatly  im- 
proved, first,  because  from  *'four  to  five  tenths  of 
the  industrial  families  of  the  United  States  are  en- 
tirely supported  by  the  earnings  of  the  father- 
husband,  '  *  ^  second,  because  the  small  percentage  of 
married  women  at  work,  the  small  wages  paid  to 
wage-earning  women,  and  the  difiiculty  which 
women  with  small  children  have  in  keeping  regular 
work,  all  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  possibilities 
of  the  wife  supplementing  the  man's  earnings  in  a 
young  family  are  small  indeed,  being  represented 
by  perhaps  one-tenth  or  one-twelfth  of  the  total 
income,  and  that  because  the  supplementary  income 
provided  by  children  under  fourteen  is  extremely 

«  F.  H.  Stbeightoff,  The  Distribution  of  Incomes  in  the  U.  8., 
p.  133,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  1912. 


WAGE-EAKNER  AND  STANDARDS  129 

small  (owing  to  legislation  and  to  the  inefficiency  of 
child  labor)  therefore  even  in  the  cases  where  the 
man  is  willing  to  turn  his  children  into  wage-earners 
before  they  have  reached  fourteen,  even  though  his 
wife  leave  her  baby  in  a  day  nursery  or  with  a 
neighbor,  the  addition  which  is  thereby  made  to 
family  income  is  a  slight  one. 

The  family  wage — the  wage  of  father,  young 
mother  and  of  children  under  fourteen  cannot  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases  raise  the  wage  secured  by 
the  man  alone  to  a  decency  level  for  the  family. 

Here  is  a  considerable  body  of  testimony  in  sup- 
port of  the  second  hypothesis  stated  at  the  end  of 
Chapter  I — ^i.  e.  ''that  no  matter  how  efficiently  and 
earnestly  he  may  strive,"  many  a  sober,  honest 
American  workingman  ''will  be  unable  to  maintain 
a  decent  standard  of  living"  for  his  wife  and  three 
young  children. 

VII.    The  Problem  of  the  Wage-Earner. 

Yonder  man  of  twenty  is  asking  whether  he  may 
marry  on  five  hundred  seventy-two  dollars  a  year. 
The  answer  is  clear-cut  and  decisive.  If  he  is  living 
in  a  town,  he  may  do  so,  and  maintain  a  fair  stand- 
ard of  living  for  two  or  three  children.  If  he  lives 
in  a  city  he  may  marry,  but  each  child  which  comes 
into  the  family  will  drag  him  down  from  a  fair 
standard  of  living  toward  the  margin  of  subsistence. 

Later  this  man  wishes  to  know  how  he  may  main- 
tain his  family  of  three  children.  So  long  as  he 
remains  an  unskilled  or  a  semi-skilled  worker,  he 


130     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

has  one  resource — the  wife  and  children  must  go  to 
work.  Even  then,  if  the  industrial  pace  flags,  if 
unemployment  comes,  if  sickness  and  accidents 
make  inroads  on  the  income  or  force  up  expenditure, 
misery  and  want  will  crouch  under  the  cupboard. 

VIII.    The  Need  for  Local  Investigation. 

A  discussion  like  the  foregoing,  if  it  does  nothing 
more,  emphasizes  the  imperativeness  of  additional 
information.  If  groups  of  people  in  the  country  are 
living  below  an  efficiency  standard,  that  fact  should 
be  known  and  the  condition  remedied.  For  the  data 
regarding  wages  over  a  large  area,  dependence  must 
of  necessity  be  placed  on  the  Federal  Government, 
but  that  fact  cannot  relieve  each  local  community  of 
the  responsibility  of  determining  the  relation  which 
exists  in  that  particular  place  between  wages  and 
standards  of  living.  Each  toTVTi,  by  adopting  a  list 
of  things  necessary  to  an  efficiency  standard  of  liv- 
ing (either  that  of  the  Federal  study,  that  of  the 
Chapin  study,  or  a  list  locally  compiled)  by  ascer- 
taining the  cost  of  these  things  in  the  local  markets, 
and  by  investigating  local  wages,  may  easily  decide 
that  these  wages  are  sufficient,  or  are  not  sufficient 
to  permit  the  maintenance  of  an  efficiency  standard. 

Nowhere  in  the  problem  need  sentiment  or 
"guess"  enter.  The  question  is  purely  a  question 
of  fact.  *'Do  the  wages  paid  in  your  community 
permit  the  wage-earners  to  maintain  a  fair  standard 
of  living?"  If  the  answer  is  *'Yes,"  the  benedic- 
tion of  prosperity  is  already  upon  you ;  if  the  answer 


WAGE-EARNER  AND  STANDARDS  131 

is  "No,"  and  you  would  participate  in  the  progress- 
ive movement  of  the  age,  see  to  it  that  measures 
are  speedily  adopted  to  insure  the  payment  of  living 
wages. 


APPENDIX 

Individuaij  Family  Budgets 

II.    A  Minimum  New  York  City  Budget. 

The  most  human  tMng  about  a  study  of  stand- 
ards of  living,  in  so  far  as  such  a  study  can  be  hu- 
man, is  the  income  and  expenditure  of  individual 
families.  These  records  of  the  financing  of  an  in- 
dividual family  reach  nearer  to  the  heart  of  the 
problem  than  do  abstract  statements.  Besides,  in 
the  last  analysis,  each  family  must  do  its  own  finan- 
cing, hence  a  statement  about  the  doings  of  this 
family  or  that  family  is  the  truest  kind  of  a  truth 
about  the  standard  of  living. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  budgets  may  be 
presented.  Perhaps  as  pleasing  a  method  as  any 
other  is  that  adopted  by  Mrs.  More.^  While  giv- 
ing the  facts  in  great  detail,  she  weaves  into  them 
a  sufficient  web  of  story  to  make  her  work  distinctly 
readable. 

II.    A  Minimum  New  York  City  Budget. 

One  of  Mrs.  More's  families,  ''Number  51,*' 
serves  as  an  excellent  example  of  a  family  living  on 

iL.  B.  MoBE,  Wage-Earners'  Budgets,  Henry  Holt  St  Co.,  New 
York,  1907. 

133 


134     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EAHNER'S  FAMILY 

the  minimum  standard.  As  there  were  but  two 
children  in  this  family,  its  expenses  are  slightly  less 
heavy  than  those  of  the  "normal"  family  hereto- 
fore considered. 

This  household  consists  of  father  and  mother,  both 
born  in  Ireland,  and  two  boys,  eight  and  nine  years 
of  age.  The  man  is  a  steady,  temperate,  unskilled 
laborer.  Neither  Mr.  nor  Mrs.  K.  has  known  any 
higher  plane  of  living  than  their  present  surround- 
ings ;  both  are  uneducated,  but  the  woman  especially 
possesses  considerable  native  thrift  and  intelligence. 
This  family  is  representative  of  the  average  family 
of  this  size  on  a  fairly  steady  income  of  $12  a  week, 
with  no  drink,  sickness,  or  unusual  conditions  to 
make  it  abnormal.  The  man  was  out  of  work  six 
weeks  in  the  year,  but  that  was  not  unusual.  The 
woman  is  neat,  honest,  and  reliable,  and  tries  hard 
"to  get  ahead."  Mr.  E.  was  greatly  interested  in 
the  investigation,  which  he  said  would  "prove  it  is 
impossible  to  get  ahead  on  wages  of  $12  a  week." 
For  three  months  he  had  night  work  as  stableman 
at  $13  a  week.  The  family  has  never  been  depend- 
ent, but  while  the  man  was  out  of  work  a  sister  gave 
them  $25  as  a  present,  and  they  were  obliged  to  draw 
$10  from  the  little  which  they  had  saved  in  the  bank. 
The  total  income  for  the  year  was : 


'Jgj  $565.00 


Mr.  R.  33  weeks  at  $12 
Mr.  R.  13  weeks  at 

Drew  from  bank 10.00 

Gift  from  sister   25.00 


Total    $600.00 


APPENDIX  135 

The  estimated  expenditures  were  as  follows: 

Rent:  2  mos.  at  $10;  7  mos.  at  $12;  3  mos.  at  $11.  .$137.00 

Food,  from  $4  to  $7  a  week 277.00 

Drink    (pint  of  beer  at  supper  daily)    36.40 

Clothing     40.00 

Light  and  fuel 52.00 

Insurance  from  50  to  75  cents  a  week 29.25 

Papers,  11  cents  a  week 5.72 

Church,  35  cents  a  week   (for  50  weeks) 17.50 

Man's    spending-money    25.00 

Sundries    2.03 

Total    $622.50 

Deficit    $  22.50 

This  deficit  consisted  of  bills  owing  to  the  butcher 
and  grocer  amounting  to  $10,  back  insurance  pay- 
ments equal  to  $2.50,  and  clothing  bought  ^'on  time" 
on  which  $10  was  still  unpaid.  The  rent  varied  be)- 
cause  the  family  had  moved  twice  in  the  year,  look- 
ing for  cheaper  rent.  They  were  never  dispos- 
sessed, and  always  paid  their  rent  in  full  before 
leaving.  They  have  always  lived  in  this  neighbor- 
hood. The  last  rooms,  for  which  they  paid  $10  a 
month  rent,  were  three  dark,  small  rooms.  The 
light  of  the  ''parlor"  at  the  back  of  the  tenement 
was  almost  shut  off  by  a  large  factory  built  close  to 
it.  The  windows  in  the  kitchen  and  bedroom 
opened  on  an  air-shaft.  The  rooms,  however,  were 
very  neat,  lace-curtains  at  the  windows,  plush  fur- 
niture, pictures  of  the  family,  carpet  on  the  floor, 
and  all  the  bric-a-brac  usual  in  homes  of  this  class. 
There  was  a  white  iron  bed  in  the  bedroom,  with  the 
customary  folding-bed  for  the  children. 

The  expenditure  for  food  varied  greatly.  A 
budget  kept  for  a  week  showed  $7  spent  for  food, 


136     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

but  Mrs.  R.  said  they  could  only  spend  that  much 
when  the  man  was  working  steadily  or  when  there 
was  no  rent  to  pay.  The  weeks  in  which  semi- 
monthly payments  of  rent  were  made,  the  food  al- 
lowance was  cut  down  to  about  $4  a  week.  During 
the  six  weeks  the  man  was  not  working  they  did 
not  spend  more  than  $4.50  a  week  for  food.  This 
is  an  illustration  of  a  very  common  condition  among 
wage-earners  and  is  due  to  the  fact  that  on  the  pre- 
vailing rate  of  unskilled  wages,  it  is  difficult  if  not 
impossible  for  a  family  to  prepare  for  such  emer- 
gencies. Making  these  allowances,  Mrs.  E.  esti- 
mated that  $277  had  been  spent  for  food  in  the 
year,  and  that  the  average  per  week  would  be  about 
$5.23.  On  the  whole,  the  food  was  adequate  and 
wholesome,  and  the  entire  family  appeared  to  be 
in  good  condition.  They  had  no  illness  during  the 
year.  Mrs.  R.  could  not  remember  that  she  had 
spent  a  cent  for  medicine,  not  even  the  usual  ex- 
penditure in  these  families  for  magnesia,  salts,  and 
cough  mixtures. 

The  standard  of  dress  is  classed  as  ''medium." 
They  had  few  clothes,  but  took  good  care  of  them. 
The  father  had  plain  working-clothes,  the  mother 
always  wore  wrappers  at  home,  and  only  had  one 
street  dress,  as  she  never  went  anywhere  except  to 
church.  The  boys  were  neat  and  clean.  Mrs.  R. 
bought  clothing  *'on  time" — she  was  ashamed  of  it, 
but  said  the  boys  could  not  have  new  suits  for  Easter 
unless  she  did.  She  itemized  the  expenditures  for 
clothing  for  the  year  as  follows : 


APPENDIX  137 

Man,  1  pair  shoes    $  2.00 

Woman,  1  pair  shoes   1.25 

Two  boys,  2  suits  7.00 

2  overcoats   11.00 

4  pairs  shoes  at  75  cts. ;  4  pairs  at  69  cts 6.76 

Mending  shoes   2.80 

2  pairs  pants,  $1.00;  4  sets  underwear,  $1.60 2.60 

4  shirt-waists;  2  at  50  cts.,  and  2  at  30  cts 1.60 

4    caps .70 

Miscellaneous    6.29 


Total    $40.00 

Mrs.  E.  cannot  sew,  and  buys  all  their  clothes 
ready-made  of  a  cheap  quality,  but  the  little  boys 
are  not  hard  on  their  clothes.  Her  sister  knits 
stockings  for  the  entire  family. 

The  expenditure  for  coal  and  gas  and  oil  was 
rather  high,  owing  to  the  dark  rooms.  Coal  was 
bought  by  the  bushel,  and  the  man  brought  home 
wood  free  for  kindling.  Gas  was  burned  in  two 
places  where  they  lived,  and  the  gas-bills  for  nine 
months  amounted  to  $11.20.  In  all,  coal  cost  $37.75 
(at  25  cents  a  bushel),  and  oil  for  three  months  about 
$3.05— total  $52. 

The  family  did  not  spend  one  cent  for  recreation, 
except  what  the  father  had  out  of  his  "spending- 
money."  This  was  very  little,  for  while  he  was 
earning  $12  a  week  his  wife  gave  him  not  more  than 
40  cents  a  week  and  often  only  25  cents  (15  cents 
for  tobacco  and  10  cents  for  a  shave),  but  when  he 
earned  $13  a  week  (for  3  months)  he  kept  out  a 
dollar  a  week  for  *'spending-money.*'  His  allow- 
ance for  the  entire  year  would  not  exceed  $25.  He 
gave  all  the  rest  to  Mrs.  R.  who  said  he  was  a  "model 


138     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

husband."  They  are  very  religious  and  go  to  the 
Catholic  Church  every  Sunday,  only  missing  two 
Sundays  in  the  year.  They  pay  10  cents  each  for 
a  seat,  put  10  cents  in  the  collection,  and  give  the 
boys  each  2  or  3  pennies  for  the  collection,  making  a 
total  of  35  cents  a  Sunday. 

They  were  all  insured  for  50  cents  a  week,  15  cents 
for  the  man,  15  cents  for  the  woman,  and  10  cents 
each  for  the  boys,  until  the  man's  wages  were  raised 
to  $13,  when  his  wife  raised  his  insurance  policy  and 
paid  40  cents  a  week  for  him.  This  extra  amount 
was  more  than  they  could  afford  to  pa}^,  for  in  those 
13  weeks  they  dropped  behind  $2.50  on  the  insurance 
payments. 

The  only  reading  is  the  penny  papers.  The  boys 
are  sent  to  the  parochial  school,  and  the  parents  are 
very  ambitious  for  them.  Unless  sickness  or  un- 
employment comes,  this  family  will  be  able  to  make 
up  the  deficit  of  $22.50  on  the  man's  wages  of  $13 
a  week,  but  it  is  very  evident  from  a  study  of  these 
expenditures  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  save  any 
considerable  sum  for  the  future.^ 

A  scrutiny  of  these  expenditures  shows  the  food 
to  be  slightly  more  than  the  22  cents  per  man,  per 
day,  allowed  by  Chapin,  while  the  expenditure  for 
clothing  is  abnormally  low — the  entire  expenditure 
for  man  and  wife  being  only  $3.25.  From  the  de- 
scription, the  housing  was  inadequate — none  of  their 
rooms  being  ''light."    The  failure  to  spend  "one 

2L.  B.  More,  Wage-Earners'  Budgets,  pp.  163-167,  Henry  Holt  & 
Co.,  New  York,  1907. 


APPENDIX  139 

cent  for  recreation"  is  one  of  the  most  noticeable 
things  about  the  budget. 

III.     The  Budget  of  a  Typical  American  Family. 

By  way  of  contrast  with  this  family  which  was 
securing  little  more  than  a  subsistence,  Mrs.  More 
analyzes  the  expenditures  of  a  family  which  she 
describes  as  typically  American.  This  family  was 
receiving  an  income  of  $850 — sufficient  to  provide 
a  fair  standard  of  living. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  B.  have  been  married  five  years 
and  have  two  children,  aged  4  years  and  1  year. 
The  man  was  born  in  New  York,  his  wife  in  Ire- 
land, but  she  was  brought  to  this  country  when  quite 
a  little  girl.  The  only  source  of  income  is  from  Mr. 
B.,  who  is  a  draftsman  in  an  architect's  office  and 
earns  $15  a  week.  He  has  been  with  the  same  firm 
for  seven  years  and  has  the  opportunity  to  make  a 
few  dollars  extra  in  drawing  up  plans  and  specifi- 
cations. This  amounted  to  about  $70  for  the  year, 
making  the  total  income  $850.  The  young  man  is 
a  bright,  capable  fellow  who  is  likely  to  succeed.  He 
never  goes  out  evenings  except  with  his  wife,  and 
usually  brings  home  work  from  the  office  to  do  at 
night.  Their  home  consists  of  three  rooms  in  the 
''old  law  tenement,"  for  which  they  pay  $13  a 
month.  The  sanitary  conditions  are  very  bad,  the 
bedroom  is  perfectly  dark,  with  only  a  small  win- 
dow about  two  feet  square  opening  into  the  hall. 
The  kitchen  is  small,  and  has  a  small  window  open- 
ing on  an  air-shaft.    The  parlor  has  two  large  win- 


140     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

dows,  but  tliey  are  close  to  a  factory  in  the  rear. 
The  rooms  are  very  well  furnished.  The  furniture 
cost  over  $200,  bought  "on  time,"  when  they  were 
married.    It  was  paid  for  in  two  years. 

The  rooms  are  never  in  order,  piles  of  clean 
clothes  are  everywhere,  usually  unwashed  dishes  are 
on  the  table,  and  everything  is  very  untidy,  but  not 
dirty.  Mrs.  B.  is  pretty,  bright,  and  ambitious,  but 
entirely  untrained  and  without  system  in  her  work. 
She  is  a  devoted  wife  and  mother.  Their  expenditure 
for  recreation  was  $50,  and  was  most  carefully  es- 
timated. They  went  regularly  once  a  week  to  the 
theater  all  winter.  This  cost  about  $16.  They  also 
went  to  six  or  seven  balls  (50  cents),  as  Mrs.  B.  is 
very  fond  of  dancing.  In  the  summer  they  take  the 
children  several  times  a  week  on  trolley-rides  in  the 
evening,  besides  trips  to  Coney  Island  and  Fort 
George.  Last  summer  they  spent  two  weeks  at  Far 
Eockaway,  where  they  paid  $9  for  two  furnished 
rooms  and  boarded  themselves.  The  man  belongs  to 
no  club  or  lodge,  but  intends  joining  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
on  23rd  Street  for  gymnasium  privileges,  and  will 
get  his  lunch  there.  Mr.  B.  gives  his  wife  his  en- 
tire earnings  every  week,  including  what  he  makes 
overtime,  and  she  gives  him  $1  for  lunch  and  $1  for 
spending-money.  He  spent  this  all  in  ways  his  wife 
knew  of,  and  so  it  has  been  divided  into  different 
expenditures — drink,  books,  papers,  etc. 

The  total  expenditures  for  the  year,  with  an  in- 
come of  $850,  were  as  follows : 


APPENDIX  141 

Food,  including  lunch-money,  $7  a  week  $364.00 

Rent,  $13  a  month   156.00 

Clothing     65.00 

Light  and  fuel  52.00 

Insurance    62.00 

Recreation     50.00 

Books  and  papers   18.00 

Drink,  30  cents  a  week,  not  more  than 20.00 

Medical   attendance,    including   dentist,   $30 45.00 

Sundries,    (tobacco,  shaving,  etc.)    10.00 

Total    $843.00 

Surplus    T 7.00 

$850.00 

Mrs.  B.  had  saved  $37,  but  $30  had  to  be  drawn 
out  of  the  bank  for  the  dentist's  bill,  so  that  only 
$7  was  saved  at  the  end  of  the  year.  They  are  anx- 
ious to  save,  but  at  the  same  time  have  a  high  stand- 
ard and  wish  to  live  well,  and  so  have  only  $47  in 
the  savings-bank.  They  live  very  comfortably  and 
have  many  pleasures  in  life.  Mrs.  B.  kept  a  budget 
of  her  household  expenses  for  four  weeks. 

The  total  expenses  for  each  week  were  as  follows 
(income  being  $15  a  week) : 

First  week    $11.98 

Second   week    9.70 

Third  week   10.30 

Fourth   week    9.40 

Total     $41.38 

Average   per   week    $10.35 

This  includes  rent,  food,  light  and  fuel,  sundries, 
and  nothing  else,  not  even  Mr.  B's  allowance  for 
lunches  and  spending-money.  The  food  expense 
averaged  $6  a  week,  with  lunch-money  it  was  $7  and 
they  lived  extremely  well  for  a  family  of  four.    The 


142     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

expenditures  for  meat  was  very  higli,  almost  one- 
third  of  the  total  amount.  They  had  plenty  of  vege- 
tables, and  more  fruit  and  pastry  than  most  families 
of  their  class.  A  sample  week's  expenditure  for 
food  is  as  follows : 

Saturday  evening,  Jan.  23rd :  1  lb.  butter,  .29 ;  1  lb.  coffee,  .25 ; 
3i  lbs.  sugar,  .18;  i  lb.  tea,  .25;  1  qt.  potatoes,  .10,  1  loaf 
bread,  .05;  vegetables,  .12;  meat,  .75;  cake,  .20;  fruit,  .10; 
1  qt.  milk,  .05 ;   oatmeal,  .10 ;  total  $2.44 

Sunday,  Jan.  24th:  Bread,  .05;  milk,  .05;  biscuits,  .10 20 

Monday,  Jan.  25tli:    Milk,  .05;  rolls,  .05;  jam,  .10;  bread,  .05. .     .25 

Tuesday,  Jan.  26:     Milk,  .05;  bread,  .05;  meat,  .25;  vegetables, 

15;   pie,  10   60 

Wednesday,  Jan.  27:  Bread,  .05;  milk,  .05;  meat,  .25;  veg- 
etables, .18;  rolls,  .05;  1  lb.  butter,  .29 87 

Thursday,  Jan.  28th:  Milk,  .05;  bread,  ,10;  meat,  .25;  veg- 
etables, .18 ;   rolls,  .05    58 

Friday,  Jan.  29th:     Milk,  .05;  bread,  .10;  fish,  .22;  4  eggs,  .14; 

vegetables,    .15    66 

Saturday  morning,  Jan.  30th:     Milk,  .05;  bread,  .05;  rolls,  .05; 

meat,  .30  45 

Mr.  B.  lunch-money  for  week   1.00 

Total  for  food   $7.05 

The  expenditures  for  light  and  fuel  are  higher 
than  the  average.  Gas  was  burned  extravagantly, 
and  the  bills  averaged  $2.20  a  month  for  six  months 
in  winter,  and  $1  a  month  in  summer,  when  it  was 
used  for  cooking.  It  cost  approximately  $19.10  a 
year,  coal  $29,  wood  for  kindling  at  2  cents  a  bundle 
about  $4.50.  Coal  was  bought  by  the  100-lb.  bag  at 
40  cents  a  bag. 

There  were  no  expenditures  for  union,  church, 
gifts  or  loans,  furniture,  or  carfares.  The  father 
and  mother  were  well-dressed,  but  the  children  were 
too  small  to  need  much.    Mrs.  B.  is  unable  to  sew 


APPENDIX  143 

and  spends  more  than  is  necessary,  but  she  buys 
clothes  of  good  quality  and  in  good  taste.  Mr.  B.  is 
fond  of  reading  the  daily  papers  and  the  cheaper 
magazines,  and  spends  30  cents  to  35  cents  a  week 
for  them.  The  insurance  is  high  because  they  are 
also  paying  the  insurance  for  the  man^s  mother — 50 
cents  a  week.  Mr.  B.'s  insurance  is  30  cents  a  week, 
Mrs.  B.^s  20  cents,  and  20  cents  for  the  children — 
total  $1.20  a  week  or  $62.40  a  year. 

The  standard  of  living  of  this  family  may  be  called 
high,  and  it  is  typical  of  that  of  many  young  couples 
of  this  class — extravagant  in  some  ways  and  provi- 
dent in  others,  with  a  fair  degree  of  comfort  and 
prosperity,  but  very  little  provision  made  for  the 
future.^ 

The  really  extravagant  thing  about  this  budget 
is  the  expenditure  for  food,  amounting  to  about  40 
cents  per  man,  per  day.  None  of  the  other  expendi- 
tures, with  the  possible  exception  of  "recreation" 
and  "dentist,"  seem  excessive.  The  insurance  pay- 
ments for  the  grandmother  are  included,  raising  the 
insurance  item  by  $26.  The  rent  expenditure  seems 
small  in  view  of  Mrs.  More's  description  of  the  in- 
adequate accommodations  secured. 

IV.    Mill  Town  Budgets. 

Less  rhetorical,  but  no  less  interesting,  are  the 
budgets  of  typical  mill  families,  published  in  volume 
16  of  the  recent  Federal  investigation  of  ^he  work  of 
Woman    and    Child    Wage-Earners.     This    study 

8  Supra,  pp.  167-171. 


144     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

covered  two  districts — one  the  cotton  mill  towns  of 
Georgia,  the  other  Fall  River,  Massachusetts.  Al- 
though these  families  differed  widely  as  regards  na- 
tionality, family  size  and  family  status,  five  budgets,  *^ 
picked  because  the  families  were  near  the  ''normal" 
family  (a  man,  wife  and  three  children  under  four- 
teen) will  give  an  excellent  idea  of  the  character  of 
the  budgets. 

Family  No.  4. 

This  family  consists  of  the  father,  mother  and 
three  children.  Their  ages,  occupations,  and  earn- 
ings are  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Membership  and  Income  of  Family  No.  4,  1908. 

Yearly  Paid  to 

earnings.  family. 

Husband,  age  50,  elevator  man  $292.45  $292.45 

Wife,  age  38,  housekeeper   

First  child,  age  15,  dofifer  in  cotton  mill   (male)  ..   254.60  254.60 

Second  child,  age  14,  spinner   (female)    283.15  283.15 

Third  child,  age  7,  at  school  ( female )    

Total    $830.20        $830.20 

Three  of  the  five  members  of  the  family  are  wage- 
earners.  It  would  be  supposed  that  they  could  earn 
sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  family  so  that  they 
could  live  comfortably.  In  fact,  their  total  earn- 
ings are  considerably  above  the  sum  apparently 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  a  fair  standard 
of  living.  Yet  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  family 
was  $50.98  in  debt.  This  was  due  to  misfortune 
rather  than  extravagance.  The  father  was  injured 
in  the  mill  twice  during  the  year  and  lost  six  weeks. 


APPENDIX  145 

Tlie  mother  is  ill  with  lung  trouble.  The  boy  has 
tuberculosis,  and  the  14-year-old  girl  is  very  frail 
and  is  constantly  taking  patent  medicines.  During 
the  year  they  spent  $108.25  on  medicines  and  doc- 
tor's bills.  The  year  before  the  14-year-old  girl, 
whose  earnings  were  a  large  share  of  the  family  in- 
come, lost  24  weeks  because  of  illness.  Because  of 
this  the  family  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
heavily  in  debt.  A  part  of  the  year's  earnings  went 
to  pay  off  this  indebtedness.  The  indebtedness  at 
the  end  of  the  year  was  $15  for  furniture  and  $33.98 
for  clothing,  bought  on  the  installment  plan,  and  $2 
on  doctor's  bills. 

The  family  occupies  a  three-room  house  and  pays 
$5.50  per  month  rent.  The  house  is  very  simply 
furnished.  The  front  room  is  used  as  a  sitting- 
room.  The  floor  is  covered  with  straw  matting. 
The  walls  are  adorned  with  portraits  of  Mormon 
elders,  the  family  professing  the  Mormon  faith. 
The  one  bedroom  contains  two  beds  in  which  the  five 
members  of  the  family  sleep. 

The  amusements  of  the  family  are  very  simple. 
The  father  gets  his  only  pleasure  out  of  reading  the 
daily  paper  and  imparting  the  information  he  has 
gleaned  to  his  wife,  who  cannot  read.  The  expendi- 
tures show  a  charge  for  amusements,  but  this  was, 
in  fact,  carfare  spent  in  going  to  the  city.  The 
children  visit  with  the  neighbors  Saturday  after- 
noon and  Sunday.  The  whole  family  are  very  de- 
vout. From  the  menu  it  can  be  seen  they  had  no 
breakfast  and  dinner  on  Sunday,  which  chanced  to 


146     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 


be  the  first  Sunday  of  the  month.  The  mother  ex- 
plained it  was  the  custom  of  the  Mormons  to  fast 
on  that  day  and  to  give  to  the  church  the  sum  that 
would  have  been  spent  for  food. 

The  following  table  shows  the  expenditures  of 
the  family  for  the  year: 

Expenditures  of  Family  ^o.  ^,  1908. 


Item.  Amount. 

Food    $289.75 

Rent    66.00 

Clothing    ( including   debt 

of  $33.98    152.32 

Fuel  (coal,  $17.50) 41.50 

Light    7.80 

Drinks    14.95 

Medicine   62.25 

Doctor's    bills    ( including 

debt  of  $2)    48.00 


Item.  Amount. 

Insurance     $  18.20 

School  books  1.60 

Newspapers    6.24 

Church  contributions  ....  1.80 

Amusements    15.60 

Sundries   9.75 

Furniture    39.00 


Total*    $774.76 


The  following  lists  show  the  clothing  purchased 
and  the  amounts  paid  for  the  different  members  of 
the  family: 

Eapenditurea  of  Family  No.  4>  for  clothing,  1908. 
Father, 

Suit     , 1,  cost  9 

Suit     1,    " 

Trousers    2,     " 

Shirts,  white 1,     " 

Shirts,  colored    4,     " 

Overalls    2,     " 

Underwear,  shirts  *   2,     " 

Underwear,  drawers    2,     " 

Shoesf    2,     " 

Hat     1,     " 

Cap    

Collars    6,     " 

Neckties   1,    " 

4  Not  including  debt  of  $15  for  furniture  purchased  during  the 
year  and  $75  paid  in  settlement  of  debt  for  preceding  year. 
•  Made  by  mother, 
f  Including  $1.20  for  half-soling  2  pra. 


age  50. 

Son 

,  age  15. 

5  20.00 

1,  cost  $ 

6.00 

.   .   ■   • 

1,     ' 

5.98 

3.00 

6,     * 

3.00 

1.00 

2,     ' 

1.00 

2.00 

4,     ' 

2.00 

1.00 

2,     ' 

1.00 

1.00 

2,     ' 

.50 

1.00 

2,     ' 

.30 

8.20 

6,     ' 

9.00 

1.98 

2,     ' 

2.15 

4,     ' 

1.00 

.60 

4,     ' 

.40 

.25 

2,     ' 

.50 

APPENDIX  147 

Father,  age  50.  Son,  age  15. 

Suspenders   1,  cost$       .25  l,cost$     .25 

Handkerchiefs     "            .25  "          .30 

Stockings    52,     "          5.20  30,     "        4.50 


Total    $45.73  $37.88 

Mother,  age  38. 

2  waists,  calico,  homemade,  6  yds.  at  .07 ;  trimmings,  .05 $  0.47 

1  skirt,  ready-made    8.98 

5  aprons,  gingham,  homemade,  15  yds.  at  .08^   1.25 

1  dress,  calico,  homemade,  10  yds.  at  .07;  trimmings,  .05 75 

2  winter  underwear,  cotton   50 

1  hat,  felt 1.98 

1  hat,  straw 1.00 

10   stockings,   cotton    1.50 

1  pr.  shoes   2.00 

Total    $18.43 

Daughter,  age  14 

1  suit,  serge,  ready-made   $  9.98 

2  waists,  lawn,  homemade,  6  yds.  at  .12J;  trimming,  .25 1.00 

2  waists,  gingham,  homemade,  6  yds.  at  .19;  trimming,  .05 65 

1  skirt,  cotton,  homemade,  5  yds.  at  .15;  trimming,  .05 80 

1  dress,  flannelette,  homemade,  8  yds.  at  .15;  trimming,  .10..      1.30 

6  dresses,  calico,  at  .07 ;  48  yds.  homemade,  trimming,  .30 ....     3.66 

1  dress,  lawn,  homemade,  8  yds.  at  .10;  trimming,  .35 1.15 

2  aprons,  gingham,  homemade,  6  yds.  at  .08^ 50 

2  petticoats,  cotton,  homemade,  8  yds.  at  .08| ;  trimming,  .05 . .       .72 
4  drawers,  canton  flannel,  homemade,  6  yds.  at  .10;  trimming, 

.05 65 

2  winter  underwear,  cotton,  ready-made 50 

1  hat,   felt    1.00 

1  hat,  straw 1.25 

52  stockings   5.20 

6  shoes  (including  $1.80  for  half  soles)    10.80 

Total    $39.16 

Daughter,  age  7. 

6  dresses,  (4^  yds.  each)  calico,  homemade,  27  yds.  at  .07;  trim- 
ming .20    $  2.09 

1  dress,  flannelette,  homemade,  4  yds.  at  .12J;  trimming,  .05..       .55 

2  petticoats,  cotton,  homemade,  6  yds.  at  .08;  trimming,  .05..       .53 

1  petticoat,  flannel,  homemade,  4  yds.  at  .25 1.00 

2  drawers,  canton  flannel,  homemade,  2  yds.  at  .10 ,  .20 

1  hat,   felt    .,  .50 

1  hat,   straw    «  .60 


148     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

20    stockings    $  2.00 

3  shoes    3,75 

Total    $11.12 

Following  is  the  menu  for  the  week  ending  Jan- 
uary 3.  1909 :' 

Monday. 
Breakfast:     Fried  bacon,  biscuit,  sirup,  Postum,  oatmeal. 
Dinner:^         Collards  and  peas  with  bacon,  corn  bread,  Postum. 
Supper:         Fried  bacon,  biscuit,  sirup,  Postum. 

Tuesday. 
Breakfasf:     Fried  pork,  biscuit,  sirup,  Postum. 
Dinner:'        Fried  bacon,  biscuit,  sirup,  Postum. 
Hupper:         Fried  meat,  biscuit,  sirup,  Postum. 

WEa)NESDAY. 

Breakfast :     Biscuit,  sirup,  grits,  Postum. 

Dinner:         Turnip  greens,  Irish  potatoes,  corn  bread,  Postum. 

Supper:  Warmed  over  greens  and  corn  bread,  Postum. 

Thuksday. 
Breakfast:     Grits,  biscuit,  sirup,  Postum. 

Dinner:  Collards,  baked  sweet  potatoes,  corn  bread,  Irish  potatoes. 

Supper:         Cold  collards,  sweet  potatoes,  Irish  potatoes,  biscuit. 

Fbiday. 
Breakfast:     Grits,  butter,  biscuit,  fried  bacon,  Postum. 
Dinner:  Stewed  beef,  macaroni,  Irish  potatoes,  corn  bread. 

Supper:  Cold  stewed  beef  and  Irish  potatoes,  biscuit. 

Saturday. 
Breakfast :     Grits,  biscuit,  sirup,  Postum. 
Dinner:  Sardines   (5-cent  box),  light  bread. 

Supper:         Fried  ham,  biscuit,  Postum. 

Sunday. 
"No  "breakfast  or  dinner.      Morman  fast  day  first  Sunday  in  each  month. 
Supper:     Fried  pork,  biscuit,  sirup. 


The  store  account  shows  a  total  expenditure 
for  the  four  weeks  of  $21.65.  Of  this,  $19.15  was 
spent  for  food.  The  family  no  longer  takes  milk  from 
the  milkman,  and  the  grocery  bill  has  been  cut  down 


i  APPENDIX  149 

since  the  new  clotlies  were  purchased.  The  average 
value  of  food  consumed  per  week  per  man  unit  for 
the  year  covered  was  $1.42. 

Family  No.  19 

This  family  consists  of  the  father,  the  mother,  and 
four  children  too  young  to  work  in  the  mill.  The 
following  shows  the  age,  occupation,  and  earnings  of 
the  different  members  of  the  family: 

Memhership  and  income  of  Family  No.  19,  1908-9. 

Yearly  Paid  to 

earnings.  family. 

Husband,  age  55,  sweeper  $258.70  $258.70 

Wife,  age  30,  housekeeper   

First  child,  age  11,  at  home    (female)    

Second  child,  age  8,  at  home   (male)    

Third  child,  age  4,  at  home  (female)    

Fourth  child,  age  1,  at  home   (female)    

Boarders  and  lodgers:  Sister-in-law  (over  21) 
sister-in-law's  child  (3)  (for  board  and  lodg- 
ing)        143.00 

Total     $258.70        $401.70 

The  clothing  expenditures  of  this  family  were  so 
similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  one  (No.  4)  that 
they  are  omitted. 

The  family  had  a  small  garden,  and  consumed 
vegetables  raised  in  it  of  an  estimated  value  of  $4. 

They  occupy  a  four-room  house  and  pay  $2.60  a 
month  rent.  The  house  is  well  taken  care  of,  ex- 
ceedingly neat,  apd  gives  evidence  of  good  manage- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  housewife.  The  furniture 
consists  of  beds  and  bedding,  a  sewing  machine, 
dresser,  side  table,  lamps,  chairs,  one  wicker  rocking 


150     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

chair,  a  cradle,  a  four  hole  kitchen  stove,  and  the 
front  window  has  flowered  muslin  curtains. 

The  health  of  the  family  seems  to  be  good  except 
that  of  the  mother  who  appears  old  and  worn  out. 
She  gave  her  age  as  30,  but  she  appears  to  be  at 
least  50.  Two  of  the  children  had  measles  during 
the  year  and  the  husband  lost  about  two  weeks  from 
malarial  fever. 

The  family  has  had  a  very  hard  time  to  get  along. 
During  the  husband's  illness  they  were  compelled 
to  borrow  money  from  the  superintendent  of  the 
mill.  The  amount  could  not  be  learned.  It  is  being 
repaid  by  taking  $1  per  week  out  of  the  husband's 
earnings,  which  are  $5.10  per  week. 

The  cost  of  living  of  the  family  exceeds  their  in- 
come by  $47.73.  The  mother  said  that  during  the 
first  years  of  their  married  life,  when  her  husband 
earned  only  $4.75  per  week  and  *  *  rations ' '  were  low 
they  saved  enough  money  to  buy  all  of  the  furniture 
they  now  possess.  "When  wages  went  up,  however, 
** rations"  went  up  so  much  more  that  they  could 
not  live  nearly  so  well  as  they  could  at  first. 

The  following  shows  the  annual  expenditures: 

Expenditures  of  Family  No.  19,  1908. 

Item.                  Amount.  Item.                   Amount. 

Food     (including    debt    of  Insurance     $23.40 

$11.29)     $217.39  Church  contributions    ...       2.00 

Rent    29.20      Washing    1.20 

Clothing     90.75      Sundries     6.93 

Fuel     34.25       Moving     5.00 

Light     11.44      Incidentals     1.60 

Tobacco   4.00      Two  pigs    7.00 

Medicine  4.00  

Doctor's  bill  (debt)    4.00  Total  »  $449.43 

6  In  addition  to  the  indebtedness  for  food  and  for  doctor  this  total 


APPENDIX  151 

In  this  family  the  father  only  is  at  work,  with 
children  too  young  to  work.  It  is  easily  seen  that 
if  the  father  ^s  earnings  were  not  supplemented  by 
keeping  boarders  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  fam- 
ily to  live.  There  are  four  children  between  the 
ages  of  1  and  11. 

Family  No.  101. 

This  family  is  French  Canadian,  though  the 
father  was  bom  in  this  country.  The  membership 
and  the  age,  occupation,  and  earnings  of  each  mem- 
ber are  shown  by  the  following  table : 

Membership  and  income  of  Family  No.  101,  1908-9. 

Yearly  Paid  to 

earnings.  family. 

Husband,  age  39,  weaver  $    404.32  $    404.32 

Wife,  age  38,  weaver 294.44  294.44 

First  child,  age  16,  weaver   (male)    374.69  374.69 

Second  child,  age  13,  at  school   (female) 

Third  child,  age  10,  at  school    (female) 

Fourth  child,  age  7,  at  school  (male)    

Total     $1,073.45        $1,073.45 

In  this  family  the  mother  works  in  the  mill.  The 
girls,  13  and  10  years  old,  take  care  of  their  younger 
brother  and  do  a  large  part  of  the  housework.  The 
mother  does  not  work  regularly,  however,  and  when 
it  is  necessary  for  her  to  stay  at  home,  as,  for  in- 
stance, to  make  the  children's  clothing,  she  does  so. 
But  she  earned  nearly  $300  during  the  past  year. 
The  family  keeps  about  15  hens,  which  afford  an 
additional  income  estimated  at  $10. 

shows  an  excess  of  expenditures  over  income  of  $32.44.     The  family 
borrowed  money  to  meet  this  deficit. 


152     FINANCING  THE  iWAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

The  family  has  five  rooms  in  a  tenement  in  which 
six  families  live.  Three  of  the  rooms  are  used  for 
sleeping  rooms,  one  for  the  kitchen,  and  one  for  the 
parlor.  The  house  is  shabbily  furnished,  but  every- 
thing appears  to  be  clean.  A  faded  and  worn  car- 
pet is  on  the  floor  of  the  front  room,  which  also 
contains  a  bureau,  a  chiffonier,  and  a  writing  desk. 
The  kitchen  is  clean  and  has  a  carpet  and  oilcloth 
on  the  floor.     The  floors  of  the  bedroom  are  bare. 

There  was  no  sickness  in  the  family  during  the 
year.  The  oldest  boy  is  given  50  cents  a  week 
spending  money.  He  goes  to  the  theater  or  moving- 
picture  shows,  and  sometimes  takes  car  rides.  The 
father  spends  about  25  cents  a  week  in  this  manner. 

The  annual  expenditures  of  the  family  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Expenditures  of  Family  No.  101,  1908-9. 

Item.                   Amount.  Item.                   Amount. 

Food    $390.00  Church  contributions    ...  $  31.00 

Rent    91.00      Amusements    39.00 

Clothing   139.07      Ice   11.20 

Fuel     35.87      Laundry    39.00 

Light    10.92      Barbering     6.75 

Tobacco     5.20      Sundries   9.62 

Drinks 13.00      Poll  tax 2.00 

Medicine 1.00  

[nsurance   26.00  Total $865.71 

Newspapers    15.08 

This  is  a  frugal  and  thrifty  family.  The  mother 
works  in  the  mill,  making  some  of  her  children's 
clothing  at  night  and  doing  a  part  of  the  housework 
before  she  goes  to  work  in  the  morning.  That  the 
family  is  able  to  save  money  is  due  to  her  economy. 
The  children  have  almost  no  clothes  and  she  herself 


APPENDIX  153 

had  had  nothing  but  one  calico  wrapper  during  the 
year.  They  have  good  food  to  eat.  The  mother, 
father,  and  eldest  boy  take  their  lunches  with  them 
to  the  mill.  This  accounts  in  some  part  for  the 
rather  unusual  expense  for  fruit  found  in  their 
grocery  account. 

The  following  table  shows  the  clothing  purchased 
for  the  different  members  of  the  family : 

Expenditures  of  Family  l^o.  101  for  clothing,  1908-9. 

Father,  age  39.        Son,  age  16.         Son,  age  7. 

Suit 1,  cost,  $12.50 

Overcoat    

Trousers,       (made      by 

mother)     

Shirts,   white    1, 

Shirts,    colored     (made 

by  mother )    4, 

Overalls    2, 

Underwear,  shirts   ....   2, 
Underwear,   drawers 

(made  by  mother) 

Shoes    

Hat   1, 

Cap     1, 

Collars    

Neckties   

Suspenders    

Handkerchiefs     

Socks    4, 


,  $12.50 

1, 

cost,  $15.00 

1,  cost,  $  4.00 

1, 

^* 

3.00 

1, 

« 

4.50 

6, 

« 

3.00 

.50 

2, 

« 

1.00 

2.00 

4, 

« 

2.00 

8. 

<c 

1.60 

1.00 

2, 

« 

1.00 

2.50 

2, 

i( 

1.00 

2, 

(( 

.50 

2, 

et 

1.00 

2, 

« 

.20 

4, 

" 

11.00 

10, 

(( 

12.50 

1.00 

1, 

« 

2.00 

2, 

(( 

1.00 

1, 

I( 

.25 

5, 

" 

.50 

10, 

" 

2.50 

.50 

2, 
6, 

1.00 
.60 

1.00 

12, 

i( 

3.00 

12, 

(t 

3.00 

Total    $21.00  $47.10  $28.05 

Mother,  age  38. 
1  dress,  calico,  home-made,  12  yds,  at  .07,  trimmings,  .05 $0.89 

Total    $0.89 

Daughter,  age  13. 

1  coat,   cloth    $  2.00 

5  dresses,  gingham,  home-made,  30  yds.  at  .12J;  trimmings,  .50     4.25 

2  petticoats,  white  cotton,  home-made,  8  yds.  at  .10 80 

2  winter  underwear,  cotton    50 

1  hat   (old  one  trimmed  over)    1.00 


154     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNEK'S  FAMILY 

1  hat  (old  one  trimmed  over)    $  1.25 

12  stockings    3.00 

4  shoes   (father  mends  shoes)    5.00 

Total    $17.80 

Daughter,  age  10. 

1  coat,  cloth $  2.00 

5  dresses,  gingham,  home-made,  25  yds.  at  .12^;  trimmings,  .50     3.63 

2  petticoats,  white  cotton,  home-made,  8  yds.  at  .10 80 

2  drawers,  white  cotton,  3  yds.  at  .10 30 

2  winter  underwear,  cotton 50 

1  hat,  straw  4.00 

1  hat   (old  one  trimmed  over)    1.25 

12  stockings    3.00 

7  shoes 8.75 

Total    $24.23 

Store  account  of  Family  No.  101  for  six  weeks  in  April  and  May,  1908. 

Apr.  7 — Soda,  .10,  bread,  .15,  corn,  .10,  oranges,  .10,  tobacco,  .10, 
sugar,  .25,  beef,  .40,  shoulder,  .51,  rice,  .20,  soap, 
.05,  starch,  .10,  soap,  .25,  bananas,  .18,  potatoes, 
1.10,  peas,  .12,  soda,  .10,  celery,  .10,  ribs,  .42,  beef, 

.51,  sugar,  .25,  soda,  .10  $  5.19 

12— Beef    36 

13— Beef    21 

14 — Steak,  .19,  ribs,  .14,  soap,  .05,  cakes,  .05,  beans,  .12, 
beans,  .12,  beans,  .09,  soda,  .10,  cheese,  .20,  beef, 

19,  beef  .28   1.53 

17 — Shoulder,  .62,  beef,  .47,  oranges,  .25,  celery,  .10,  cook- 
ies, .10,  cookies,  .15,  cookies,  .10,  tea,  .05   1.84 

20 — Bread,  .05,  sausage,  .13,  beef,  .31,  steak,  .20,  bananas, 
.10,  oranges,  .25,  cookies,  .10,  beans,  .12,  cakes, 

.05,  beef,  .22   1.53 

21— Bread   05 

22— Ham,  .14,  soda,  .10,  beef,  .12,  beans,  .12 48 

23— Pork,   .06,   brisket,   .28,   shoulder,   .61,  beef,   .43,   or- 
anges, .27,  cookies,  .10,  lard,  .10,  sugar,  .25....      2.10 
26 — ^Potatoes,  .65,  beef,   .19,  bananas,   .12,   pork,   .06,  ba- 
nanas,   .10    1.12 

27— Beef,  .23,  ribs,  .16,  beans,  ,12 51 

28— Beef,  .26,  ribs,  .16   ' 40 

29 — Oranges,  .08,  beans,  .12,  bananas,  .21,  meat,  .30,  shoul- 
der, .05,  beef,  .38,  cakes,  .10,  cakes,  .10,  tobacco, 
.10     2.04 


APPENDIX  155 

May  1 — Shoulder,  .25,  rice,  .05,  beans,  .12,  cakes,  .16,  steak, 
.16,  beef,  .23,  steak,  .10,  beef,  .19,  ribs,  .15,  ba- 
nanas, .12,  cakes,  .15,  beef,  .10   $  1.78 

6 — Bananas,  .12,  cream  puff,  .05,  beans,  .12,  shoulder,  .61, 
beef,  .34,  potatoes,  .65,  shoulder,  .20,  soap,  .25, 
nuts,  .05,  sugar,  .25,  water  cress,  .10,  oranges,  .24, 

tobacco,  .10,  sugar,  .25,  cookies,  .10 3.63 

12— Fish    25 

14 — Water  cress    05 

16 — Shoulder,  .56,  sugar,  .25,  beans,  .12,  matches,  .10,  nuts, 
.05,  pepper,  .10,  eclairs,  .10,  beef,  .27,  ribs,  .17, 
beans,  .12,  shoulder,  .25,  beef,  .12,  bananas,  .12, 

steak,  .20,  sugar,  .25,  lard,  .28    3.06 

20— Steak,  .12,  dates,  .12,  yeast,  .12 36 

21 — Pork,  .06,  bananas,  .10,  meat,  .45,  lard,  .28,  shoulder, 
.67,  beef,  .41,  tobacco  .06,  sugar,  .25,  potatoes,  .58, 
beef,  .26,  tomatoes,  .10,  vermicelli,  .10,  straw- 
berries, .24    3.56 

26 — Rhubarb,    .10,    tobacco,    .06    16 

Total    $19.92 

In  addition  to  the  amount  shown  in  the  store  ac- 
count the  family  expended  $3.44  per  week  elsewhere 
for  food,  as  follows :  Coffee,  $0.25 ;  tea,  $0.25 ;  but- 
ter, $0.90;  flour,  $0.50;  bread,  $1.05,  and  milk,  $0.49. 
There  was  also  an  expenditure  of  $11.20  per  year 
for  ice.  The  average  value  of  food  consumed  per 
week  per  man  unit  for  the  year  covered  was 
$1.71. 

Family  No.  103 

This  family  is  Portuguese.  They  came  from  the 
Azores  and  had  been  in  this  country  7  years.  The 
children  can  speak  English  but  the  parents  cannot. 
The  family  consists  of  the  father,  mother,  and  4 
children.  The  table  following  shows  the  age,  occu- 
pation, and  earnings  of  the  different  members. 


156     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

Membership  and  income  of  Family  No.  lOS,  1908-9. 

Yearly  Paid  to 

earnings.  family. 

Father,  age  44,  sweeper  $203.22  $203.22 

Mother,  age  36,  housekeeper 

First  child,  age  19,  doffer  (male)    240.33  240.33 

Second  child,  age  17,  spinner   (female)    285.60  285.60 

Third  child,  age  11,  at  school   (male)    

Fourth  child,  age  3,  at  home   (female)    

Total   $829.15         $829,15 

The  father's  earnings  are  estimated  beeanse  his 
name  could  not  be  identified  on  the  pay  roll  of  the 
company  for  which  he  worked. 

They  live  on  the  first  floor  of  a  tenement  in  which 
there  are  8  families.  They  occupy  four  rooms,  one 
of  which  is  used  for  kitchen,  dining-room,  and  sit- 
ting-room. The  other  three  are  used  for  sleeping 
rooms.  The  kitchen  stove  furnishes  the  heat  for 
all  the  rooms  in  the  winter.  The  house  is  very  dirty 
and  is  poorly  taken  care  of.  The  furnishings  con- 
sist of  absolute  necessities  only,  such  as  table, 
chairs,  stove,  and  beds. 

The  mother  and  younger  children  are  poorly 
clothed  and  very  dirty.  The  mother  had  typhoid 
fever  during  the  year  and  a  baby  died  of  pneumonia. 
The  health  of  the  other  members  of  the  family  was 
good. 

The  diversions  of  the  family  are  simple — street- 
car rides  and  moving-picture  shows  occasionally  for 
the  older  members,  and  church. 

The  annual  expenditures  are  as  follows : 


APPENDIX  157 

Expenditures  of  Family  No.  103,  1908-9. 

Item.                   Amount.  Item.                   Amount. 

Food    $383.24     Newspapers,   etc $     1.00 

Rent    84.00      Church  contributions 31.20 

Clothing   77.84      Amusements     5.00 

Fuel     28.00      Funeral  expenses   35.00 

Light 7.28      Sundries     7.80 

Tobacco     5.20      Poll  tax   2.00 

Drinks    10.00  

Medicine    7.00  Total    $714.56 

Doctor's  bills    30.00 

The  difference  between  the  expenses  for  the  year 
and  the  income  shows  that  there  may  have  been 
some  savings.  The  mother  said,  however,  that  they 
had  not  saved  any  money.  It  may  be  that  she  was 
not  telling  the  truth,  though  the  grocery  book  showed 
that  they  were  in  debt  to  the  store  $25.81. 

The  family  lived  very  poorly  and  it  would  seem 
that  they  spent  as  little  money  as  they  could.  The 
underclothing  for  most  of  the  children  and  nearly 
all  of  the  clothes  for  the  youngest  child  are  made 
by  the  mother  from  the  flour  sacks  in  which  she 
buys  her  flour. 

Expenditures  of  Family  No.  103  for  clothing,  1908-9. 

Father,  age  44.  Son,  age  19.          Son,  age  11. 

Suit     1,  cost  $  7.00         1,  cost  $  5.00 

Trousers     3,     "        3.00 

Shirts,  white    1,     "          .50 

Shirts,  colored   3,  cost  $0.45  3,     "          .75 

Overalls     3,     "        1.00  2,     «        1.00         2,     "          .50 

Underwear,    shirts    ..2,     "          .50  2,     "          .50         2,     "          .50 

Underwear,    drawers. 2,     "          .75  (2)                           (2) 

Shoes    1,     "        1.50  6,     "        9.00         8,     "        6.00 

Hat    1,     "        1.00 

Caps     3,     "          .75         1,     «          .25 

Collars     1,     "         .10  2,     "          .25 

Neckties     1,     "          .25  1,     ''^          .25         1,     "          .10 

Suspenders    1>     "          -25 

Handkerchiefs    6,     "  .25 

Stockings     4,     "          .40  15,     "        1.50        6,     "          .60 

Total    $5.20  $25.75  $12.95 


158     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EAENER'S  FAMILY 

Mother,  age  36. 
3  waists,  cotton,  home-made,  lOJ  yds.  at  .05;  trimmings,  .15.. $0.68 

1  skirt,  calico,  6  yds.  at  .05 '. 30 

2  petticoats,  cotton,  10  yds.  at  .08 80 

1  stockings    10 

2  shoes    3.00 

Total    $4.88 

Daughter,  age  17. 
1  coat    $  3.00 

1  dress,  lawn  6  yds.  at  .25;   trimmings,  .10,    (home-made)..      1.60 
6  dresses,  calico,  42  yds.  at  .06;  trimmings  .60,    (home-made)      3.12 

2  petticoats,  cotton,  8  yds.  at  .08,   ( home-made ) 64 

2  drawers  (made  from  flour  sacks)    

2  corsets    1.50. 

1  hat    ( summer )    3.50 

10  stockings     2.00 

3  shoes    4.50 

Total    $19.86 

Daughter,  age  3. 

1  coat    $2.00 

2  dresses,  flannel,  6  yds.  at  .08;  trimmings,  .10   (other  dresses 

and  all  underwear  made  from  flour  sacks )    50 

1  hat   ( summer )    50 

2  stockings     20 

6  shoes    6.00 

Total    $9.20 

The  average  value  of  food  consumed  per  week  per 
man  unit  for  the  year  covered  was  $1.60.  The  menu 
for  2  days  (May  23  and  24,  1909)  was  obtained  and 
is  as  follows: 

Sunday. 
Breakfast:    Pork  steak,  bread,  coffee,  condensed  milk. 
Dinner:         Soup    (made  of  meat,  potatoes,  cabbage,  and  bologna), 

bread,   coffee,   condensed   milk. 
Supper:         Soup  left  from  dinner. 

Monday. 
Breakfast:     Bread,  coffee,  condensed  milk,  soup  from  day  before. 
Dinner:  Bread,  coffee,  condensed  milk. 

Supper:         Soup  from  the  day  before. 


APPENDIX  159 

The  soup  wliicli  entered  so  largely  into  the  diet 
was  made  in  a  large  iron  pot.  It  is  the  custom  to 
make  enough  to  last  several  days,  and  to  replenish  it 
whenever  the  pot  becomes  empty.  All  kinds  of  meats 
and  vegetables  are  put  into  it.  The  bread  is  a  very 
soggy  composition  made  of  flour  and  corn  meal. 
As  the  price  of  flour  goes  up,  more  corn  meal  and 
less  flour  is  used  in  making  it.  On  one  of  the  visits 
to  the  family  for  information  the  oldest  boy  came 
home  from  work  for  his  dinner.  He  sat  down  to 
the  table,  which  was  covered  with  oilcloth,  and  his 
dinner  consisted  of  bread  and  coffee. 

Family  No.  108, 

This  family  is  Polish.  They  have  been  in  this 
country  12  years.  The  husband  is  the  only  worker, 
but  his  earnings  are  far  above  the  average.  The 
membership,  and  the  age,  occupation,  and  earnings 
of  the  members  of  the  family  are  as  follows : 

MemhersMp  and  income  of  Family  No.  108,  1908-9. 

Yearly  Paid  to 

earnings.  family. 

Husband,  age  40,  slubber   $527.80  $527.80 

Wife,  age  40,  housekeeper   

First  child,  age  10,  at  school   (male)    

Second  child,  age  5,  at  home   (male)    ...... 

Third  child,  age  4,  at  home   ( female )    

Fourth  child,  age  1,  at  home   (male)    

Two  lodgers   (lodging  at  $3  per  month  each) 72.00  72.00 

Total     $599.80        $599.80 

The  family  has  five  rooms  in  a  tenement  house  in 
which  four  families  live.    Four  of  the  rooms  are  on 


160     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

tlie  second  floor,  and  tlie  fifth  one  is  an  attic  room 
on  the  third  floor.  The  house  is  very  dirty,  and  the 
kitchen  floor  was  covered  with  cigarette  stubs.  The 
furnishings  are  very  poor  and  consist  of  only 
the  most  necessary  articles.  The  kitchen,  which  is 
also  the  general  living  room,  is  furnished  with  a 
table,  stove,  chairs,  and  a  few  cheap  pictures.  The 
bedrooms  contain  nothing  but  the  beds  and  bedding. 

The  family  was  in  good  health  during  the  year, 
the  baby  being  the  only  member  that  was  sick.  It 
had  the  summer  complaint.  The  amusements  of  the 
family  are  of  the  simplest  kind. 

The  annual  expenditures  of  the  family  were  as 
follows : 

Expenditures  of  Family  No.  108,  1908-9. 

Item.                    Amount.  Item.                    Amount. 

Food    $361.40  Church  contributions    ...  $  52.00 

Rent    91.00      Stove  repair   7.50 

Clothing    73.31       Sundries     13.00 

Fuel    13.00      Bedstead    4.00 

Light    6.25      Mattress     2.00 

Tobacco    13.00       Carfare    1.00 

Drinks    52.00      Poll  tax  2.00 

Medicine     2.00  

Doctor's  bills   4.00  Total  $697.46 

The  children  picked  up  a  large  part  of  the  fuel, 
so  that  the  expense  for  this  was  only  $13.  The  ex- 
penses exceeded  the  income  by  $97.66.  This  was 
met  by  drawing  from  the  bank  money  that  they  had 
saved  in  former  years.  The  amount  of  their  sav- 
ings could  not  be  learned. 

The  clothing  purchased  for  the  diflFerent  members 
of  the  family  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


APPENDIX  161 

Expenditures  of  Family  A^o.  108  for  clothing,  1908-9. 

Father,  age  40.         Son,  age  10.  Son,  age  5 

Trousers  

Shirts,  white    1,  cost  $  0.50 

Shirts,  colored 4, 

Overalls   4, 

Underwear,    shirts    ..2, 
Underwear,  drawers .  .  2, 

Shoes    3, 

Hat     1, 

Caps  

Collars  2, 

Neckties 1, 

Stockings 

Barbering    

Waists        (made       at 
home)     

Total    $19.40  $17.50  $7.80 

Mother,  age  40. 
1  coat $  5.50 

1  waist,  white   1.00 

2  waists,  calico,  home-made,  8  yds.  at  .07 ;  trimmings,  .20 76 

1  skirt,  wool 7.00 

1  dress,  calico,  home-made,  9  yds.  at  .08;  trimmings,  .10 .82 

1  hat    (summer)    3.00 

2  stockings    25 

2  shoes 3.00 

4  handkerchiefs    20 


4,  cost  $  2.40 

t$  0.50 

2.00 

4, 

11 

.80 

2.00 

1.00 

1.00 

6.00 

8, 

« 

12.00 

6,  cost    $6.00 

1.00 

2, 

" 

1.00 

2,     "          .50 

.25 

.25 

.40 

^0 

.50 

5.00 

4, 

It 

.80 

4,     «          .80 

Total $21.53 

Daughter,  age  4. 

4  dresses,  calico,  16  yds.  at  .17;  trimmings,  .20  $1.32 

12  stockings    1.20 

3  shoes  1.50 


Total    $4.02 

Daughter,  age  1. 

4  dresses,  calico,  12  yds.  at  .08  $1.16 

4  stockings   40 

3  shoes 1.50 


Total $3.06 

A  menu  for  five  meals  was  obtained  and  is  as  fol- 
lows : 


162     FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 

May  19,  1909. 
Breakfast:     Pork  chops,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 
Dinner:  Beef  soup,  potatoes,  bread. 

Supper:         Pork  chops,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 

May  20,  1909. 
Breakfast:     Pork  chops,  sausage,  bread,  butter,  coffee. 
Dinner:  Beef  soup,  potatoes,  bread. 

The  grocery  account  for  as  long  a  period  as  could 
be  obtained  is  as  follows : 


Store  account  of  Family  "No.  108  for  one  week  in  May,  1909. 


May  12 


13 


14 


17 


18 


19 


First  Store. 

Pickles    $0.02 

Flour 04 

Beef    14 

Pork    16 

Beef    19 

Eggs    13 

Pie 10 

Cheese     08 

Cookies 05 

Cheese 04 

Pork    


Salt 


13 

15 

05 

19 

Frankfurters 12 

Sausage    15 


Pressed  ham 
Beef  . 
Cakes 


Beef    

Frankfurters 
Bologna    . . . . 

Cookies   

Pressed  ham 


.13 

.09 
.05 
.12 
.10 
.12 
.12 
.05 
.13 


Barley    05 

Beef    

Cookies   

Pressed  ham   . 
Frankfurters   . 

Flour  

Beef    


.10 
.05 
.13 
.12 
.04 
.08 


May  12 


Second  Store. 

Eggs     

Sugar    


Crackers    

Tobacco    

Vinegar    

Cakes    

Milk    

Ammonia  water. 


Crackers  . 
Cucumbers 
Cabbage    . . 

Soap    

Bread    . . . . 


Crackers 


Soda  ... 
Cakes  . . 
Crackers 


Eggs 


).06 
.06 
.04 
.05 
.05 
.02 
.05 
.07 
.05 
.15 
.05 
.07 
.07 
.04 
.05 
.05 
.02 
.05 
.05 
.05 
.06 
.05 
.05 
.05 
.05 
.09 
.14 
.05 
.05 


Total 


$1.69 


Total    $3.22 


APPENDIX  163 

The  store  accounts  cover  a  period  of  1  week  at 
two  stores.  A  total  of  $4.91  was  expended  for  food 
at  the  two  stores.  During  the  same  period  other 
articles  were  purchased  as  follows:  Coffee,  35 
cents;  milk,  49  cents;  flour,  $1;  butter,  30  cents;  a 
total  of  $2.14,  making  with  the  $4.91  expended  at 
the  stores  a  total  expenditure  of  $7.05  for  the  week. 
The  average  value  of  food  consumed  per  week  per 
man  unit  for  the  year  covered  was  $1.99. 

V.    Variations  in  Family  Incomes. 

A  most  interesting  phase  of  the  individual  family- 
problem  was  touched  upon  in  the  Federal  study. 
lUnemployment  has  been  frequently  discussed,  as  an 
abstract  problem,  and  it  has  been  the  subject  of 
many  printed  pages.  Then,  too,  the  general  effect 
of  unemployment  upon  poverty,  misery  and  the  like 
has  been  dealt  with  in  such  books  as  Devine's 
Misery  and  Its  Cause. ^  Yet  unemployment  as  a 
problem  in  the  income  of  an  individual  family  has 
come  in  for  too  little  attention.  Among  the  excel- 
lent statistics  appearing  in  the  Federal  study  are  a 
number  of  tables  of  the  income  of  individual  fami- 
lies by  weeks.  Many  of  the  instances  show  the  most 
astonishing  variations.    For  example: 

e  E.  T.  Devine,  Misery  and  Its  Causes,  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York,  1909. 


164      FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 


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166      FINANCING  THE  WAGE-EARNER'S  FAMILY 


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APPENDIX  ,       167 

VI.    Making  Both  Ends  Meet. 

Opinion  may  well  differ  regarding  the  value  of 
general  estimates  of  the  amounts  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  subsistence  or  a  fair  standard.  A 
thoughtful  reader  of  these  individual  family  budgets 
is  forced  to  admit  that  the  amounts  which  they  al- 
low for  the  various  items  are  in  most  cases  pain- 
fully small.  Here  the  item  of  food  assumes  fair 
proportions;  there  fifty  or  sixty  dollars  are  spent 
for  recreation;  again  the  cost  of  clothing  reaches 
$150;  yet,  on  the  whole  the  smallness  and  not  the 
largeness  of  the  items  is  impressive. 

To  those  members  of  the  middle  income  class, 
who  estimate  yearly  income  in  thousands  of 
dollars,  incomes  of  hundreds  of  dollars  seem  insig- 
nificant, yet  it  remains  true  that  among  the  wage- 
earners  engaged  in  American  industry,  not  more 
than  one  in  ten  has  an  annual  income  of  $1,000,  and 
over,  while  fully  half  fall  below  $600.  The  vast 
majority  of  wage-earners  must  therefore  estimate 
their  incomes  in  terms  of  hundreds.  The  individ- 
ual budgets,  cited  in  the  appendix,  which  might  be 
duplicated  at  will,  in  tens  of  thousands  of  instances, 
bespeak  eloquently  the  economic  struggle  of  those 
who  do  the  work  of  the  modern  industrial  world. 


INDEX 


Adult   Males : 
Wages   of,    126. 

Budgets,  Economic  changes,  67. 
Budget  Making: 
Family,  6. 

Clothing : 

Fair  Standard  of  Living,  74. 

Minimum  Standard  of  Living, 
65. 
Cost  of  a  Standard  of  Living,  82. 

Summary,  96. 
Crises : 

Effect  on  Income,  28. 

Efficiency  Standard  of  Living: 

Necessity  for,  122. 
Expenditure  and  Family  size,  50. 
Expenditures : 

By  Income  Group,  51. 

Objects  of,  49,  51. 

Fair  Standard  of  Living: 

Cost  of,  89. 

Defined,    70. 
Family  Budgets: 

Analysis  of  Individual,  45. 

Compilation  of,  47. 
Family  Income: 

Contribution    of    women    and 
children,  108. 

Distribution  of,  113. 

Percentage  from  various 
sources.  111. 


Family  Income — confd. 
Sources  of,  34,  99, 
Standard  of  Living  and^  128. 
Family  Size: 

Expenditures  and,  60. 
Food: 
Menu  for  Fair  Standard  of  Liv- 
ing, 72. 
Menu  for  Minimum  Standard, 

64. 
Needs  of  Various  Persons  for, 

59. 
Kequirements  in  a  Standard  of 
Living,  58. 

Goods: 

As  a  Basis  for  Study,  54. 

Housing. 

Fair  Standard  of  Living,  73. 

Income : 

Adult  Males,  101. 

California,  104. 

Compared  with  Standards  of 
Living,  106. 

Lawrence,  103. 

Little  Falls,  103. 

Manufacturing,  101. 

New  Jersey,  103. 

Steel  Industry,   102. 
Contribution  of  Women  to,  33. 
Family,  Sources  of,  111. 
In  Kind,   100. 
Problems  of,  11-12. 


169 


170 


INDEX 


Income — cont'd. 

Standard  of  Living  and,  98. 

Standard  of  Living, 
Fall  River,  116, 

Sources  of  Family,  34,  99. 

Supplementary  Sources  of,  32. 

Unemployment  and,   105. 
Income    and    Expenditure    Con- 
trasted, 37. 
Income  and  Living  Standards,  13. 
Industry : 

Modern  Organization  of,  16. 

Males : 

Income  of,  101. 
Machinery : 

•    Effect  on  Income,  26. 
Minimum  Standard  of  Living: 

Cost  of,  62. 

Elements  in,  63. 

Overwork : 

Effect  on  Income,  20. 

Kailroads : 

Opportunities      for      Advance- 
ment on,  14. 

Sickness  and  Accident,  22. 
Standard  of  Living: 

As  Shown  in  Family  Budgets, 
45. 

Averaging     Income     and     Ex- 
penditure, 47. 

Chapin,  Study  of,  61. 

Clothing,  Minimum  Standard, 
65. 

Cost  of,  82,  124. 

Cost  of.  Summary,  96. 

Determination     of     Efficiency, 
124. 


Standard  of  Living — confd. 
Effects  of  low,  38. 
Elements  in,  55. 
Estimates  of,  44. 
Expenditures : 

By  Income  Group,  51. 

Family  Size  and,  50. 
Fair: 

Clothing,  74. 

Cost  of,  89. 

Housing,  73. 

Menu  for,  72. 

Requirements  of,  71. 
Fair  or  Normal  Standard, 

Definition,  70. 
Family  Income  and,  128. 
Federal  Study  of,  62. 
Food: 

Family  Needs, 

Computation  of,  60. 

Menu   for   Minimum   Stand- 
ard, 64. 

Requirements,  58. 
Forms,  55. 

Goods  as  a  Basis  for,  54. 
Income  and,  13,  98,  116. 
Income    of    Adult   Males    and, 

106. 
Meaning  of,  44. 
Methods  of  Determining,  63. 
Minimum  Cost  of,  82. 
Minimum,  Defined,  63. 
Necessity  for  EflSciency,  122. 
Need  for   Local  Investigation, 

130. 
Objects  of  Expenditure,  49-51 
Specific  Items  in,  57. 
Studies  of,  46. 
The  Family  Standard,  119. 
Underfeeding,  39. 
Value  of  goods,  Standard,  70. 


INDEX 


171 


Subsistence : 

Minimum  of,  36. 
Supplementary    Income    Sources, 
32. 

Unemployment: 

EfTect  on  Income,  26-27. 

Income  and,  105. 
Underfeeding: 

Extent  of,  39. 
Chicago,  40. 


Wage    Earner : 

Dilemma  of  the,  41,  121. 

Problem  of  the,  129. 
Wages : 

Forces  determining,  17-19. 

Adult  Males,   126. 
Women : 

Contributing     to     Family 
come,  38,  108. 
Workingman's  Dilemma,  41. 


In- 


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"""TZIII— — - 

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PBINTEOINU.S.A. 

'jC  SOUTMEfN  fEGiON 


A     000  541  912     2 


